From: Subject: The Jewish People and their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible Date: Mon, 20 Apr 2009 11:37:51 -0400 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C9C1AC.6FFDCED0" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.5579 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C9C1AC.6FFDCED0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/pcb_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20020212_popolo-ebraico_en.html The Jewish People and their Sacred Scriptures in the = Christian Bible
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THE PONTIFICAL BIBLICAL=20 COMMISSION

THE JEWISH PEOPLE
AND = THEIR SACRED=20 SCRIPTURES
IN THE CHRISTIAN BIBLE

INDEX

  • Preface=20

  • Intro= duction=20

  • I.=20 The Sacred Scriptures of the Jewish people are a fundamental = part of the=20 Christian Bible

A.=20 The New Testament recognizes the authority of the Sacred = Scripture of=20 the Jewish people

1.=20 Implicit recognition of authority
2.=20 Explicit recourse to the authority of the Jewish = Scriptures=20

B.=20 The New Testament attests conformity to the Jewish = Scriptures=20

1.=20 Necessity of fulfilling the Scriptures
2.=20 Conformity to the Scriptures
3.=20 Conformity and Difference

C.=20 Scripture and Oral Tradition in Judaism and = Christianity=20

1.=20 Scripture and Tradition in the Old Testament and Judaism =
2.=20 Scripture and Tradition in Early Christianity
3.=20 Relationships between the two perspectives =

D.=20 Jewish Exegetical Methods employed in the New = Testament=20

1.=20 Jewish Methods of Exegesis
2.=20 Exegesis at Qumran and in the New Testament
3.=20 Rabbinic Methods in the New Testament
4.=20 Important Allusions to the Old Testament =

E.=20 The Extension of the Canon of Scripture

1.=20 In Judaism
2.=20 In the Early Church
3.=20 Formation of the Christian Canon =

  • II.=20 Fundamental themes in the Jewish Scriptures and their reception = into=20 faith in Christ

A.=20 Christian Understanding of the relationships between the Old = and New=20 Testaments

1.=20 Affirmation of a reciprocal relationship
2.=20 Re-reading the Old Testament in the light of Christ
3.=20 Allegorical Re-reading
4.=20 Return to the Literal Sense
5.=20 The unity of God's Plan and the Idea of Fulfilment
6.=20 Current Perspectives
7.=20 Contribution of Jewish reading of the Bible =

B.=20 Shared Fundamental Themes

1.=20 Revelation of God
2.=20 The Human Person: Greatness and Wretchedness
3.=20 God, Liberator and Saviour
4.=20 The Election of Israel
5.=20 The Covenant
6.=20 The Law
7.=20 Prayer and Cult, Jerusalem and Temple
8.=20 Divine Reproaches and Condemnations
9.=20 The Promises

C.=20 Conclusion

1.=20 Continuity
2.=20 Discontinuity
3. = Progression

  • III.=20 The Jews in the New Testament

A.=20 Different viewpoints within post-exilic Judaism =

1.=20 The last centuries before Jesus Christ
2.=20 The first third of the first century A.D. in Palestine =
3.=20 The second third of the first century
4.=20 The final third of the first century

B.=20 Jews in the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles

1.=20 The Gospel according to Matthew
2.=20 The Gospel according to Mark
3.=20 The Gospel according to Luke and the Acts of the Apostles =
4.=20 The Gospel according to John
5.=20 Conclusion

C.=20 The Jews in the Pauline Letters and other New Testament=20 Writings

1.=20 Jews in the undisputed Pauline Letters
2.=20 Jews in the other Letters
3.=20 Jews in the Book of = Revelation

  • IV.=20 Conclusions

A.=20 General Conclusion
B.=20 Pastoral Orientations

NOTES=20

PREFACE

The internal unity of the Church's Bible, which = comprises=20 the Old and New Testaments, was a central theme in the theology of = the=20 Church Fathers. That it was far from being a theoretical problem = only is=20 evident from dipping, so to speak, into the spiritual journey of = one of=20 the greatest teachers of Christendom, Saint Augustine of Hippo. In = 373,=20 the 19 year old Augustine already had his first decisive = experience of=20 conversion. His reading of one of the works of Cicero =97 = Hortensius,=20 since lost =97 brought about a profound transformation which he = himself=20 described later on as follows: =93Towards you, O Lord, it directed = my=20 prayers... I began to pick myself up to return to you... How = ardent I was,=20 O my God, to let go of the earthly and take wing back to you=94 = (Conf.=20 III, 4, 81). For the young African who, as a child, had = received the=20 salt that made him a catechumen, it was clear that conversion to = God=20 entailed attachment to Christ; apart from Christ, he could not = truly find=20 God. So he went from Cicero to the Bible and experienced a = terrible=20 disappointment: in the exacting legal prescriptions of the Old = Testament,=20 in its complex and, at times, brutal narratives, he failed to find = that=20 Wisdom towards which he wanted to travel. In the course of his = search, he=20 encountered certain people who proclaimed a new spiritual = Christianity,=20 one which understood the Old Testament as spiritually deficient = and=20 repugnant; a Christianity in which Christ had no need of the = witness of=20 the Hebrew prophets. Those people promised him a Christianity of = pure and=20 simple reason, a Christianity in which Christ was the great = illuminator,=20 leading human beings to true self-knowledge. These were the=20 Manicheans.1

The great promise of the Manicheans proved = illusory, but the=20 problem remained unresolved for all that. Augustine was unable to = convert=20 to the Christianity of the Catholic Church until he had learned, = through=20 Ambrose, an interpretation of the Old Testament that made = transparent the=20 relationship of Israel's Bible to Christ and thus revealed that = Wisdom for=20 which he searched. What was overcome was not only the exterior = obstacle of=20 an unsatisfactory literary form of the Old Latin Bible, but above = all the=20 interior obstacle of a book that was no longer just a document of = the=20 religious history of a particular people, with all its strayings = and=20 mistakes. It revealed instead a Wisdom addressed to all and came = from God.=20 Through the transparency of Israel's long, slow historical = journey, that=20 reading of Israel's Bible identified Christ, the Word, eternal = Wisdom. It=20 was, therefore, of fundamental importance not only for Augustine's = decision of faith; it was and is the basis for the faith decision = of the=20 Church as a whole.

But is all this true? Is it also demonstrable and = tenable=20 still today? From the viewpoint of historical-critical exegesis, = it seems=20 =97 at first glance, in any case =97 that exactly the opposite is = true. It was=20 in 1920 that the well-known liberal theologian Adolf Harnack = formulated=20 the following thesis: =93The rejection of the Old Testament in the = second=20 century [an allusion to Marcion] was an error which the great = Church was=20 right in resisting; holding on to it in the 16th century was a = disaster=20 from which the Reformation has not yet been able to extricate = itself; but=20 to maintain it since the 19th century in Protestantism as a = canonical=20 document equal in value to the New Testament, that is the result = of=20 religious and ecclesial paralysis=94.2

Is Harnack right? At first glance several things = seem to=20 point in that direction. The exegetical method of Ambrose did = indeed open=20 the way to the Church for Augustine, and in its basic orientation = =97=20 allowing, of course, for a considerable measure of variance in the = details=20 =97 became the foundation of Augustine's faith in the biblical = word of God,=20 consisting of two parts, and nevertheless composing a unity. But = it is=20 still possible to make the following objection: Ambrose had = learned this=20 exegesis from the school of Origen, who had been the first to = develop its=20 methodology. But Origen, it may be said, only applied to the Bible = the=20 allegorical method of interpretation which was practised in the = Greek=20 world, to explain the religious texts of antiquity =97 in = particular, Homer=20 =97 and not only produced a hellenization intrinsically foreign to = the=20 biblical word, but used a method that was unreliable, because, in = the last=20 analysis, it tried to preserve as something sacred what was, in = fact, only=20 a witness to a moribund culture. Yet, it is not that simple. Much = more=20 than the Greek exegesis of Homer, Origen could build on the Old = Testament=20 interpretation which was born in a Jewish milieu, especially in=20 Alexandria, beginning with Philo who sought in a totally = appropriate way=20 to introduce the Bible to Greeks who were long in search of the = one=20 biblical God beyond polytheism. And Origen had studied at the feet = of the=20 rabbis. He eventually developed specifically Christian principles: = the=20 internal unity of the Bible as a rule of interpretation, Christ as = the=20 meeting point of all the Old Testament pathways.3

In whatever way one judges the detailed exegesis = of Origen=20 and Ambrose, its deepest basis was neither Hellenistic allegory, = nor Philo=20 nor rabbinic methods. Strictly speaking, =97 leaving aside the = details of=20 interpretation =97 its basis was the New Testament itself. Jesus = of Nazareth=20 claimed to be the true heir to the Old Testament =97 =93the = Scriptures=94 =97 and=20 to offer a true interpretation, which, admittedly, was not that of = the=20 schools, but came from the authority of the Author himself: =93He = taught=20 them as one having authority, and not as the scribes=94 (Mk 1:22). = The=20 Emmaus narrative also expresses this claim: =93Beginning with = Moses and all=20 the prophets, he interpreted to them the things about himself in = all the=20 Scriptures=94 (Lk 24:27). The New Testament authors sought to = ground this=20 claim into details, in particular Matthew, but Paul as well, by = using=20 rabbinic methods of interpretation to show that the scribal = interpretation=20 led to Christ as the key to the =93Scriptures=94. For the authors = and founders=20 of the New Testament, the Old Testament was simply =93the = Scriptures=94: it=20 was only later that the developing Church gradually formed a New = Testament=20 canon which was also Sacred Scripture, but in the sense that it = still=20 presupposed Israel's Bible to be such, the Bible read by the = apostles and=20 their disciples, and now called the Old Testament, which provided = the=20 interpretative key.

From this viewpoint, the Fathers of the Church = created=20 nothing new when they gave a Christological interpretation to the = Old=20 Testament; they only developed and systematised what they = themselves had=20 already discovered in the New Testament. This fundamental = synthesis for=20 the Christian faith would become problematic when historical = consciousness=20 developed rules of interpretation that made Patristic exegesis = appear=20 non-historical and so objectively indefensible. In the context of=20 humanism, with its new-found historical awareness, but especially = in the=20 context of his doctrine of justification, Luther invented a new = formula=20 relating the two parts of the Christian Bible, one no longer based = on the=20 internal harmony of the Old and New Testaments, but on their = essential=20 dialectic linkage within an existential history of salvation, the=20 antithesis between Law and Gospel. Bultmann modernised this = approach when=20 he said that the Old Testament is fulfilled in Christ by = foundering. More=20 radical is the proposition of Harnack mentioned above; as far as I = can=20 see, it was not generally accepted, but it was completely logical = for an=20 exegesis for which texts from the past could have no meaning other = than=20 that intended by the authors in their historical context. That the = biblical authors in the centuries before Christ, writing in the = Old=20 Testament, intended to refer in advance to Christ and New = Testament faith,=20 looks to the modern historical consciousness as highly = unlikely.

As a result, the triumph of historical-critical = exegesis=20 seemed to sound the death-knell for the Christian interpretation = of the=20 Old Testament initiated by the New Testament itself. It is not a = question=20 here of historical details, as we have seen, it is the very = foundations of=20 Christianity that are being questioned. It is understandable then = that=20 nobody has since embraced Harnack's position and made the = definitive break=20 with the Old Testament that Marcion prematurely wished to = accomplish. What=20 would have remained, our New Testament, would itself be devoid of = meaning.=20 The Document of the Pontifical Biblical Commission introduced by = this=20 Preface declares: =93Without the Old Testament, the New Testament = would be=20 an unintelligible book, a plant deprived of its roots and destined = to dry=20 up and wither=94 (no. 84).

From this perspective, one can appreciate the = enormous task=20 the Pontifical Biblical Commission set for itself in deciding to = tackle=20 the theme of the relationship between the Old and New Testaments. = If the=20 impasse presented by Harnack is to be overcome, the very concept = of an=20 interpretation of historical texts must be broadened and deepened = enough=20 to be tenable in today's liberal climate, and capable of = application,=20 especially to Biblical texts received in faith as the Word of God. = Important contributions have been made in this direction over = recent=20 decades. The Pontifical Biblical Commission made its own = contribution in=20 the Document published in 1993 on =93The Interpretation of the = Bible in the=20 Church=94. The recognition of the multidimensional nature of human = language,=20 not staying fixed to a particular moment in history, but having a = hold on=20 the future, is an aid that permits a greater understanding of how = the Word=20 of God can avail of the human word to confer on a history in = progress a=20 meaning that surpasses the present moment and yet brings out, = precisely in=20 this way, the unity of the whole. Beginning from that Document, = and=20 mindful of methodology, the Biblical Commission examined the = relationship=20 between the many great thematic threads of both Testaments, and = was able=20 to conclude that the Christian hermeneutic of the Old Testament,=20 admittedly very different from that of Judaism, =93corresponds = nevertheless=20 to a potentiality of meaning effectively present in the texts=94 = (no. 64).=20 This is a conclusion, which seems to me to be of great importance = for the=20 pursuit of dialogue, but above all, for grounding the Christian = faith.

In its work, the Biblical Commission could not = ignore the=20 contemporary context, where the shock of the Shoah has put the = whole=20 question under a new light. Two main problems are posed: Can = Christians,=20 after all that has happened, still claim in good conscience to be = the=20 legitimate heirs of Israel's Bible? Have they the right to propose = a=20 Christian interpretation of this Bible, or should they not = instead,=20 respectfully and humbly, renounce any claim that, in the light of = what has=20 happened, must look like a usurpation? The second question follows = from=20 the first: In its presentation of the Jews and the Jewish people, = has not=20 the New Testament itself contributed to creating a hostility = towards the=20 Jewish people that provided a support for the ideology of those = who wished=20 to destroy Israel? The Commission set about addressing those two=20 questions. It is clear that a Christian rejection of the Old = Testament=20 would not only put an end to Christianity itself as indicated = above, but,=20 in addition, would prevent the fostering of positive relations = between=20 Christians and Jews, precisely because they would lack common = ground. In=20 the light of what has happened, what ought to emerge now is a new = respect=20 for the Jewish interpretation of the Old Testament. On this = subject, the=20 Document says two things. First it declares that =93the Jewish = reading of=20 the Bible is a possible one, in continuity with the Jewish = Scriptures of=20 the Second Temple period, a reading analogous to the Christian = reading,=20 which developed in parallel fashion=94 (no. 22). It adds that = Christians can=20 learn a great deal from a Jewish exegesis practised for more than = 2000=20 years; in return, Christians may hope that Jews can profit from = Christian=20 exegetical research (ibid.). I think this analysis will = prove=20 useful for the pursuit of Judeo-Christian dialogue, as well as for = the=20 interior formation of Christian consciousness.

The question of how Jews are presented in the New = Testament=20 is dealt with in the second part of the Document; the = =93anti-Jewish=94 texts=20 there are methodically analysed for an understanding of them. = Here, I want=20 only to underline an aspect which seems to me to be particularly=20 important. The Document shows that the reproofs addressed to Jews = in the=20 New Testament are neither more frequent nor more virulent than the = accusations against Israel in the Law and the Prophets, at the = heart of=20 the Old Testament itself (no. 87). They belong to the prophetic = language=20 of the Old Testament and are, therefore, to be interpreted in the = same way=20 as the prophetic messages: they warn against contemporary = aberrations, but=20 they are essentially of a temporary nature and always open to new=20 possibilities of salvation.

To the members of the Biblical Commission, I wish = to express=20 gratitude and appreciation for their work. From their discussions, = patiently pursued over several years, this Document has emerged = which, I=20 am convinced, can offer a precious aid to the study of one of the = central=20 questions of the Christian faith, as well as to the search so = important=20 for a new understanding between Christians and Jews.

Rome, the feast of the Ascension 2001

JosephCardinal Ratzinger

INTRODUCTION4

1. Modern times have made Christians more aware of = the close=20 fraternal bonds that unite them to the Jewish people. During the = second=20 world war (1939-1945), tragic events, or more precisely, = abominable crimes=20 subjected the Jewish people to a terrible ordeal that threatened = their=20 very existence throughout most of Europe. In those circumstances, = some=20 Christians failed to exhibit the spiritual resistance to be = expected from=20 disciples of Christ, and did not take the appropriate initiatives = to=20 counter them. Other Christians, though, did generously aid Jews in = danger,=20 often at the risk of their own lives. In the wake of such an = enormous=20 tragedy, Christians are faced with the need to reassess their = relations=20 with the Jewish people. Already considerable research and = reflection has=20 been done in this direction. The Pontifical Biblical Commission, = insofar=20 as it is competent, wishes to participate in this endeavour. Since = this=20 obviously does not include addressing all the historical and = contemporary=20 aspects of the problem, the Commission confines itself to the = current=20 state of research in the field of biblical exegesis.

The question which is asked is the following: What = relations=20 does the Christian Bible establish between Christians and the = Jewish=20 people? The general answer is clear: between Christians and Jews, = the=20 Christian Bible establishes many close relations. Firstly, because = the=20 Christian Bible is composed, for the greater part, of the =93Holy=20 Scriptures=94 (Rm 1:2) of the Jewish people, which Christians call = the =93Old=20 Testament=94; secondly, because the Christian Bible is also = comprised of a=20 collection of writings which, while expressing faith in Christ = Jesus, puts=20 them in close relationship with the Jewish Sacred Scriptures. This = second=20 collection, as we know, is called the =93New Testament=94, an = expression=20 correlative to =93Old Testament=94.

That an intimate relationship exists between them = is=20 undeniable. A closer examination, however, reveals that this is = not a=20 straightforward relationship, but a very complex one that ranges = from=20 perfect accord on some points to one of great tension on others. A = careful=20 study is therefore necessary. The Biblical Commission has devoted = the past=20 few years to this study. The results, which make no claim of being = exhaustive, are presented here in three chapters. The first = chapter lays=20 the foundations by demonstrating that the New Testament recognises = the=20 authority of the Old Testament as divine revelation and that the = New=20 Testament cannot be properly understood apart from the Old = Testament and=20 the Jewish tradition which transmits it. The second chapter then = examines=20 analytically how the writings of the New Testament appropriate the = rich=20 content of the Old Testament by developing its basic themes in the = light=20 of Jesus Christ. Finally, the third chapter reviews the various = attitudes=20 which the New Testament writings express regarding the Jews, = following, in=20 this respect, the example of the Old Testament itself.

In this way the Biblical Commission hopes to = advance the=20 dialogue between Christians and Jews with clarity and in a spirit = of=20 mutual esteem and affection.

 

I.
THE SACRED = SCRIPTURES
OF THE=20 JEWISH
PEOPLE ARE A FUNDAMENTAL
PART OF THE CHRISTIAN = BIBLE

2. It is above all by virtue of its historical = origin that=20 the Christian community discovers its links with the Jewish = people.=20 Indeed, the person in whom it puts its faith, Jesus of Nazareth, = is=20 himself a son of this people. So too are the Twelve whom he chose = =93to be=20 with him and to be sent out to proclaim the message=94 (Mk 3:14). = In the=20 beginning, the apostolic preaching was addressed only to the Jews = and=20 proselytes, pagans associated with the Jewish community (cf. Ac = 2:11).=20 Christianity, then, came to birth in the bosom of first century = Judaism.=20 Although it gradually detached itself from Judaism, the Church = could never=20 forget its Jewish roots, something clearly attested in the New = Testament;=20 it even recognised a certain priority for Jews, for the Gospel is = the=20 =93power of God for salvation to everyone who has faith, to the = Jew first=20 and also to the Greek=94 (Rm 1:16).

A perennial manifestation of this link to their = beginnings=20 is the acceptance by Christians of the Sacred Scriptures of the = Jewish=20 people as the Word of God addressed to themselves as well. Indeed, = the=20 Church has accepted as inspired by God all the writings contained = in the=20 Hebrew Bible as well as those in the Greek Bible. The title =93Old = Testament=94 given to this collection of writings is an expression = coined by=20 the apostle Paul to designate the writings attributed to Moses = (cf. 2 Co=20 3:14-15). Its scope has been extended, since the end of the second = century, to include other Jewish writings in Hebrew, Aramaic and = Greek.=20 The title =93New Testament=94 takes its origin from a message in = the Book of=20 Jeremiah which announced a =93new covenant=94 (Jr 31:31), the = expression is=20 translated in the Greek of the Septuagint as =93new = dispensation=94, =93new=20 testament=94 (kain diathk). The message announced that God = intended=20 to establish a new covenant. The Christian faith sees this promise = fulfilled in the mystery of Christ Jesus with the institution of = the=20 Eucharist (cf. 1 Co 11:25; Heb 9:15). Consequently, that = collection of=20 writings which expresses the Church's faith in all its novelty is = called=20 the =93New Testament=94. The title itself points towards a = relationship with=20 the =93Old Testament=94.

 

A.=20 The New Testament recognizes the authority of the Sacred = Scriptures=20 of the Jewish people

3. The New Testament writings were never presented = as=20 something entirely new. On the contrary, they attest their = rootedness in=20 the long religious experience of the people of Israel, an = experience=20 recorded in diverse forms in the sacred books which comprise the = Jewish=20 Scriptures. The New Testament recognises their divine authority. = This=20 recognition manifests itself in different ways, with different = degrees of=20 explicitness.

1.=20 Implicit recognition of authority

Beginning from the less explicit, which = nevertheless is=20 revealing, we notice that the same language is used. The = Greek of=20 the New Testament is closely dependent on the Greek of the = Septuagint, in=20 grammatical turns of phrase which were influenced by the Hebrew, = or in the=20 vocabulary, of a religious nature in particular. Without a = knowledge of=20 Septuagint Greek, it is impossible to ascertain the exact meaning = of many=20 important New Testament terms.5

This linguistic relationship extends to numerous = expressions=20 borrowed by the New Testament from the Jewish Scriptures, giving = rise to=20 frequent reminiscences and implicit quotations, that is, = entire=20 phrases found in the New Testament without any indication of = origin. These=20 reminiscences are numerous, but their identification often gives = rise to=20 discussion. To take an obvious example: although the Book of = Revelation=20 contains no explicit quotations from the Jewish Bible, it is a = whole=20 tissue of reminiscences and allusions. The text is so steeped in = the Old=20 Testament that it is difficult to distinguish what is an allusion = to it=20 and what is not.

What is true of the Book of Revelation is true = also =97=20 although to a lesser degree =97 of the Gospels, the Acts of the = Apostles and=20 the Letters.6 The difference is that in these writings = we find,=20 in addition, many explicit quotations, that is, introduced = as=20 such.7 In this way they clearly indicate the more = important=20 borrowings, recognising thereby the authority of the Jewish Bible = as=20 divine revelation.

2.=20 Explicit recourse to the authority of the Jewish = Scriptures

4. This recognition of authority takes different = forms=20 depending on the case. Frequently, in a revelatory context the = simple verb=20 legei, =93it says=94, is found, without any expressed=20 subject,8 as in later rabbinic writings, but the = context shows=20 that a subject conferring great authority on the text is to be = understood:=20 Scripture, the Lord or Christ.9 At other times the = subject is=20 expressed: it is =93Scripture=94, =93the Law=94, or =93Moses=94 or = =93David=94, with the=20 added note that he was inspired, =93the Holy Spirit=94 or =93the = prophet=94,=20 frequently =93Isaiah=94, sometimes =93Jeremiah=94, but it is also = =93the Holy=20 Spirit=94 or =93the Lord=94 as the prophets used to = say.10 Twice,=20 Matthew has a complex formula indicating both the divine speaker = and the=20 human spokesperson: =93what had been spoken by the Lord through = the=20 prophet...=94 (Mt 1:22; 2:15). At other times the mention of the = Lord=20 remains implicit, suggested only by the preposition dia = =93through=94,=20 referring to the human spokesperson. In these texts of Matthew, = the verb=20 =93to say=94 in the present tense results in presenting the = quotations from=20 the Jewish Bible as living words possessing perennial = authority.

Instead of the verb =93to say=94, the term = frequently used to=20 introduce quotations is the verb =93to write=94 in the Greek = perfect tense,=20 expressing the permanent effect of a past action: gegraptai, = =93it=20 has been written=94 or simply =93it is written=94. This = gegraptai carries=20 considerable weight. Jesus successfully counters the tempter in = the first=20 temptation by simply saying: =93It is written: Man does not live = by bread=20 alone...=94 (Mt 4:4; Lk 4:4), adding palin =93on the = contrary=94, the=20 second time (Mt 4:7) and gar, =93for=94, the third time (Mt = 4:10). This=20 =93for=94 makes explicit the weight of argument attributed to the = Old=20 Testament text, something already implicit in the first two. It = can also=20 happen that a biblical text is not definitive and must give way to = a new=20 dispensation; in that case, the New Testament uses the Greek = aorist tense,=20 placing it in the past. Such is the case with the Law of Moses = regarding=20 divorce: =93Because of your hardness of heart [Moses] wrote = (egrapsen)=20 this commandment for you=94 (Mk 10:5; cf. also Lk 20:28).

5. Frequently, the New Testament uses texts of the = Jewish=20 Bible for the sake of argument, both with the verb =93to = say=94 and the=20 verb =93to write=94. Sometimes we find the expression: =93For it=20 says...=94,11 more often: =93For it is = written...12 The=20 formulae =93for it is written=94, =93because it is written=94, = =93according to what=20 is written=94 are very frequent in the New Testament; in the = Letter to the=20 Romans alone there are 17 instances.

In his doctrinal arguments, the apostle Paul = constantly=20 relies on his people's Scriptures. He makes a clear distinction = between=20 scriptural argumentation and =93human=94 reasoning. To the = arguments from=20 Scripture he attributes an incontestable value.13 For = him the=20 Jewish Scriptures have an equally enduring value for guiding the = spiritual=20 lives of Christians: =93For whatever was written in former days = was written=20 for our instruction, so that by steadfastness and by the = encouragement of=20 the Scriptures we might have hope=94.14

The New Testament recognises the definitive value = of=20 arguments based on the Jewish Scriptures. In the Fourth Gospel, = Jesus=20 declares that =93Scripture cannot be annulled=94 (Jn 10:35). Its = value derives=20 from the fact that it is the =93word of God=94 (ibid.). = This conviction=20 is frequently evident. Two texts are particularly significant for = this=20 subject, since they speak of divine inspiration. In the Second = Letter to=20 Timothy, after mentioning the =93Sacred Scriptures=94 (2 Tm 3:15), = we find=20 this affirmation: =93All Scripture is inspired by God and is = useful for=20 teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in = righteousness,=20 so that the man of God may be proficient, equipped for every good = work=94 (2=20 Tm 3:16-17). Specifically referring to the prophetic oracles = contained in=20 the Old Testament, the Second Letter of Peter declares: =93First = of all you=20 must understand this, that no prophecy of Scripture is a matter of = one's=20 own interpretation, because no prophecy ever came by human will, = but men=20 moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God=94 (2 Pt 1:20-21). These = two texts=20 not only affirm the authority of the Jewish Scriptures; they = reveal the=20 basis for this authority as divine inspiration.

 

B.=20 The New Testament attests conformity to the Jewish=20 Scriptures

6. A twofold conviction is apparent in other = texts: on the=20 one hand, what is written in the Jewish Scriptures must of = necessity be=20 fulfilled because it reveals the plan of God which cannot fail to = be=20 accomplished; on the other hand, the life, death and resurrection = of=20 Christ are fully in accord with the Scriptures.

1.=20 Necessity of fulfilling the Scriptures

The clearest expression of this is found in the = words=20 addressed by the risen Christ to his disciples, in the Gospel of = Luke:=20 =93These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still = with you =97=20 that everything written about me in the Law of Moses, the = Prophets, and=20 the Psalms must (dei) be fulfilled=94 (Lk 24:44). This = assertion shows=20 the basis of the necessity (dei, =93must=94) for the = paschal mystery of=20 Jesus, affirmed in numerous passages in the Gospels: =93The Son of = Man=20 must undergo great suffering...and after three days rise=20 again=94;15 =93But how then would the Scriptures be = fulfilled which=20 say it must happen this way?=94 (Mt 26:54); =93This = Scripture must=20 be fulfilled in me=94 (Lk 22:37).

Because what is written in the Old Testament = =93must=94 be=20 fulfilled, the events take place =93so that=94 it is = fulfilled. This is=20 what Matthew often expresses in the infancy narrative, later on in = Jesus'=20 public life16 and for the whole passion (Mt 26:56). = Mark has a=20 parallel to the last mentioned passage in a powerfully elliptic = phrase:=20 =93But let the Scriptures be fulfilled=94 (Mk 14:49). Luke does = not use this=20 expression but John has recourse to it almost as often as Matthew=20 does.17 The Gospels' insistence on the purpose of these = events=20 =93so that the Scriptures be fulfilled=9418 attributes = the utmost=20 importance to the Jewish Scriptures. It is clearly understood that = these=20 events would be meaningless if they did not correspond to what the = Scriptures say. It would not be a question there of the = realisation of=20 God's plan.

2. = Conformity=20 to the Scriptures

7. Other texts affirm that the whole mystery of = Christ is in=20 conformity with the Jewish Scriptures. The early Christian = preaching is=20 summarised in the kerygmatic formula recounted by Paul: =93For I = handed on=20 to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that = Christ=20 died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, and = that he=20 was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in = accordance with=20 the Scriptures, and that he appeared...=94 (1 Co 15:3-5). He = adds:=20 =93Whether, then, it was I or they, this is what we preach and = this is what=20 you believed=94 (1 Co 15:11). The Christian faith, then, is not = based solely=20 on events, but on the conformity of these events to the revelation = contained in the Jewish Scriptures. On his journey towards the = passion,=20 Jesus says: =93The Son of Man goes as it is written of him=94 (Mt = 26:24; Mk=20 14:21). After his resurrection, Jesus himself =93interpreted to = them the=20 things about himself in all the Scriptures=94.19 In his = discourse=20 to the Jews of Antioch in Pisidia, Paul recalls these events by = saying=20 that =93the residents of Jerusalem and their leaders did not = recognise him=20 [Jesus] or understand the words of the prophets that are read = every=20 sabbath, they fulfilled these words by condemning him=94 (Ac = 13:27). The New=20 Testament shows by these declarations that it is indissolubly = linked to=20 the Jewish Scriptures.

Some disputed points that need to be kept in mind = may be=20 mentioned here. In the Gospel of Matthew, a saying of Jesus claims = perfect=20 continuity between the faith of Christians and the T=F4r~h: = =93Do not=20 think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have = come not=20 to abolish but to fulfil=94 (Mt 5:17). This theological = affirmation is=20 characteristic of Matthew and his community. It is in tension with = other=20 sayings of the Lord which relativises the Sabbath obvervance (Mt = 12:8,12)=20 and ritual purity (Mt 15:11).

In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus appropriates a saying = of Isaiah=20 (Lk 4:17-21; Is 61:1-2) to define his mission as he begins his = ministry.=20 The ending of the Gospel expands this perspective when it speaks = of=20 fulfilling =93all that is written=94 about Jesus (Lk 24:44).

On that point, it is essential, according to = Jesus, to =93hear=20 Moses and the prophets=94, the ending of the parable of the Rich = Man and=20 Lazarus (Lk 16:29-31) drives home the point: without a docile = listening,=20 even the greatest prodigies are of no avail.

The Fourth Gospel expresses a similar perspective: = Jesus=20 attributes to the writings of Moses an authority comparable to his = own=20 words, when he says to opponents: =93If you do not believe what he = wrote,=20 how will you believe what I say?=94 (Jn 5:47). In a Gospel where = Jesus=20 affirms that his words =93are spirit and life=94 (Jn 6:63), such = an assertion=20 gives primary importance to the T=F4r~h.

In the Acts of the Apostles, the kerygmatic = discourses of=20 the Church leaders =97 Peter, Paul and Barnabas, James =97 place = the events of=20 the Passion, Resurrection, Pentecost and the missionary outreach = of the=20 Church in perfect continuity with the Jewish = Scriptures.20

3. = Conformity and=20 Difference

8. Although it never explicitly affirms the = authority of the=20 Jewish Scriptures, the Letter to the Hebrews clearly shows that it = recognises this authority by repeatedly quoting texts to ground = its=20 teaching and exhortations. It contains numerous affirmations of = conformity=20 to prophetic revelation, but also affirmations of conformity that = include=20 aspects of non-conformity as well. This was already the case in = the=20 Pauline Letters. In the Letters to Galatians and Romans, the = apostle=20 argues from the Law to prove that faith in Christ has put an end = to the=20 Law's regime. He shows that the Law as revelation predicted its = own end as=20 an institution necessary for salvation.21 The most = important=20 text on this subject is Rm 3:21 where the apostle affirms that the = manifestation of the justice of God in the justification offered = by faith=20 in Christ is brought about =93apart from the Law=94, but is = nevertheless=20 =93attested by the Law and the Prophets=94. In a similar way, the = Letter to=20 the Hebrews shows that the mystery of Christ fulfils the = prophecies and=20 what was prefigured in the Jewish Scriptures, but, at the same = time,=20 affirms non-conformity to the ancient institutions: the glorified = Christ=20 is at one and the same time in conformity with the words of Ps 109 = (110):1,4, and in non-conformity with the levitical priesthood = (cf. Heb=20 7:11,28).

The basic affirmation remains the same. The = writings of the=20 New Testament acknowledge that the Jewish Scriptures have a = permanent=20 value as divine revelation. They have a positive outlook towards = them and=20 regard them as the foundation on which they themselves rest. = Consequently,=20 the Church has always held that the Jewish Scriptures form an = integral=20 part of the Christian Bible.

 

C.=20 Scripture and Oral Tradition in Judaism and=20 Christianity

9. In many religions there exists a tension = between=20 Scripture and Tradition. This is true of Oriental Religions = (Hinduism,=20 Buddhism, etc.) and Islam. The written texts can never express the = Tradition in an exhaustive manner. They have to be completed by = additions=20 and interpretations which are eventually written down but are = subject to=20 certain limitations. This phenomenon can be seen in Christianity = as well=20 as in Judaism, with developments that are partly similar and = partly=20 different. A common trait is that both share a significant part of = the=20 same canon of Scripture.

1.=20 Scripture and Tradition in the Old Testament and = Judaism

Tradition gives birth to Scripture. The = origin of Old=20 Testament texts and the history of the formation of the canon have = been=20 the subject of important works in the last few years. A certain = consensus=20 has been reached according to which by the end of the first = century of our=20 era, the long process of the formation of the Hebrew Bible was = practically=20 completed. This canon comprised the T=F4r~h, the Prophets = and the=20 greater part of the =93Writings=94. To determine the origin of the = individual=20 books is often a difficult task. In many cases, one must settle = for=20 hypotheses. These are, for the most part, based on results = furnished by=20 Form, Tradition and Redaction Criticism. It can be deduced from = them that=20 ancient precepts were assembled in collections which were = gradually=20 inserted in the books of the Pentateuch. The older narratives were = likewise committed to writing and arranged together. Collections = of=20 narrative texts and rules of conduct were combined. Prophetic = messages=20 were collected and compiled in books bearing the prophets' names. = The=20 sapiential texts, Psalms and didactic narratives were likewise = collected=20 much later.

Over time Tradition produced a =93second = Scripture=94=20 (Mishna). No written text can adequately express all the = riches of a=20 tradition.22 The biblical sacred texts left open many = questions=20 concerning the proper understanding of Israelite faith and = conduct. That=20 gave rise, in Pharisaic and Rabbinic Judaism, to a long process of = written=20 texts, from the =93Mishna=94 (=93Second Text=94), edited at the = beginning of the=20 third century by Jehuda ha-Nasi, to the =93Tosepta=94 = (=93Supplement=94) and=20 Talmud in its twofold form (Babylonian and Jerusalem). = Notwithstanding its=20 authority, this interpretation by itself was not deemed adequate = in later=20 times, with the result that later rabbinic explanations were = added. These=20 additions were never granted the same authority as the Talmud, = they served=20 only as an aid to interpretation. Unresolved questions were = submitted to=20 the decisions of the Grand Rabbinate.

In this manner, written texts gave rise to further = developments. Between written texts and oral tradition a certain = sustained=20 tension is evident.

The Limits of Tradition. When it was put = into writing=20 to be joined to Scripture, a normative Tradition, for all that, = never=20 enjoyed the same authority as Scripture. It did not become part of = the=20 =93Writings which soil the hands=94, that is, =93which are = sacred=94 and was not=20 accepted as such in the liturgy. The Mishna, the Tosepta and the = Talmud=20 have their place in the synagogue as texts to be studied, but they = are not=20 read in the liturgy. Generally, a tradition is evaluated by its = conformity=20 to the T=F4r~h. The reading of the T=F4r~h occupies = a privileged=20 place in the liturgy of the Synagogue. To it are added pericopes = chosen=20 from the Prophets. According to ancient Jewish belief, the = T=F4r~h=20 was conceived before the creation of the world. The Samaritans = accept=20 only the T=F4r~h as Sacred Scripture, while the Sadduccees = reject=20 every normative Tradition outside the Law and the Prophets. = Conversely,=20 Pharisaic and Rabbinic Judaism accept, alongside the written Law, = an oral=20 Law given simultaneously to Moses and enjoying the same authority. = A tract=20 in the Mishna states: =93At Sinai, Moses received the oral Law and = handed it=20 on to Joshua, and Joshua to the ancestors, and the ancestors to = the=20 prophets, and the prophets handed it on to members of the Great = Synagogue=94=20 (Aboth 1:1). Clearly, a striking diversity is apparent from = the=20 manner of conceiving the role of Tradition.

2. = Scripture=20 and Tradition in Early Christianity

10. Tradition gives birth to Scripture. In = early=20 Christianity, an evolution similar to that of Judaism can be = observed=20 with, however, an initial difference: early Christians had the = Scriptures=20 from the very beginning, since as Jews, they accepted Israel's = Bible as=20 Scripture. But for them an oral tradition was added on, =93the = teaching of=20 the Apostles=94 (Ac 2:42), which handed on the words of Jesus and = the=20 narrative of events concerning him. The Gospel catechesis took = shape only=20 gradually. To better ensure their faithful transmission, the words = of=20 Jesus and the narratives were put in writing. Thus, the way was = prepared=20 for the redaction of the Gospels which took place some decades = after the=20 death and resurrection of Jesus. In addition, professions of faith = were=20 also composed, together with the liturgical hymns which are found = in the=20 New Testament Letters. The Letters of Paul and the other apostles = or=20 leaders were first read in the church for which they were written = (cf. 1=20 Th 5:27), were passed on to other churches (cf. Col 4:16), = preserved to be=20 read on other occasions and eventually accepted as Scripture (cf. = 2 P=20 3:15-16) and attached to the Gospels. In this way, the canon of = the New=20 Testament was gradually formed within the apostolic Tradition.

Tradition completes Scripture. Christianity = has in=20 common with Judaism the conviction that God's revelation cannot be = expressed in its entirety in written texts. This is clear from the = ending=20 of the Fourth Gospel where it is stated that the whole world would = be=20 unable to contain the books that could be written recounting the = actions=20 of Jesus (Jn 21:25). On the other hand, a vibrant tradition is=20 indispensable to make Scripture come alive and maintain its = relevance.

It is worth recalling here the teaching of the = Farewell=20 Discourse on the role of =93the Spirit of truth=94 after Jesus' = departure. He=20 will remind the disciples of all that Jesus said (Jn 14:26), bear = witness=20 on Jesus' behalf (15:26), and lead the disciples =93into all the = truth=94=20 (16:13), giving them a deeper understanding of the person of = Christ, his=20 message and work. As a result of the Spirit's action, the = tradition=20 remains alive and dynamic.

Having affirmed that the apostolic preaching is = found=20 =93expressed in a special way=94 (=93speciali modo = exprimitur=94) in the=20 inspired Books, the Second Vatican Council observes that it is = Tradition=20 =93that renders a more profound understanding in the Church of = Sacred=20 Scripture and makes it always effective=94 (Dei=20 Verbum 8). Scripture is defined as the =93Word of God = committed to=20 writing under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit=94; but it is = Tradition=20 that =93transmits to the successors of the apostles the Word of = God=20 entrusted by Christ the Lord and by the Holy Spirit to the = apostles, so=20 that, illumined by the Spirit of truth, they will protect it = faithfully,=20 explain it and make it known by their preaching=94 (DV=20 9). The Council concludes: =93Consequently, it is not from = Sacred=20 Scripture alone that the Church draws its certainty about = everything which=20 has been revealed=94 and adds: =93That is why both =97 Scripture = and Tradition =97=20 must be accepted and venerated with the same sense of devotion and = reverence=94 (DV=20 9).

The Limits of the additional contribution of = Tradition.=20 To what extent can there be in the Christian Church a = tradition that=20 is a material addition to the word of Scripture? This question has = long=20 been debated in the history of theology. The Second Vatican = Council=20 appears to have left the matter open, but at least declined to = speak of=20 =93two sources of revelation=94, which would be Scripture and = Tradition; it=20 affirmed instead that =93Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture = constitute a=20 unique sacred deposit of the Word of God which is entrusted to the = Church=94=20 (Dei=20 Verbum 10). It likewise rejected the idea of a tradition=20 completely independent of Scripture. On one point at least, the = Council=20 mentions an additional contribution made by Tradition, one of = great=20 importance: Tradition =93enabled the Church to recognise the full = canon of=20 the Sacred Books=94 (DV=20 8). Here, the extent to which Scripture and Tradition are = inseparable=20 can be seen.

3.=20 Relationship between the two perspectives

11. As we have shown, there is a corresponding = relationship=20 between Scripture and Tradition in Judaism and Christianity. On = one point,=20 there is a greater correspondence, since both religions share a = common=20 heritage in the =93Sacred Scripture of Israel=94.23

From a hermeneutical viewpoint, however, = perspectives=20 differ. For all the currents within Judaism during the period=20 corresponding to the formation of the canon, the Law was at the = centre.=20 Indeed, in it were to be found the essential institutions revealed = by God=20 himself governing the religious, moral, juridical and political = life of=20 the Jewish nation after the Exile. The prophetic corpus contains = divinely=20 inspired words, transmitted by the prophets and accepted as = authentic, but=20 it contained no laws capable of providing an institutional base. = From this=20 point of view, the prophetic writings are of second rank. The = =93Writings=94=20 contain neither laws nor prophetic words and consequently occupy = third=20 place.

This hermeneutical perspective was not taken over = by the=20 Christian communities, with the exception, perhaps, of those in=20 Judeo-Christian milieux linked to Pharisaic Judaism by their = veneration of=20 the Law. In the New Testament, the general tendency is to give = more=20 importance to the prophetic texts, understood as foretelling the = mystery=20 of Christ. The apostle Paul and the Letter to the Hebrews do not = hesitate=20 to enter into polemics against the Law. Besides, early = Christianity shared=20 apocalyptic currents with the Zealots and with the Essenes = apocalyptic=20 messianic expectation; from Hellenistic Judaism it adopted a more=20 extended, sapientially oriented body of Scripture capable of = fostering=20 intercultural relations.

What distinguishes early Christianity from all = these other=20 currents is the conviction that the eschatological prophetic = promises are=20 no longer considered simply as an object of future hope, since = their=20 fulfilment had already begun in Jesus of Nazareth, the Christ. It = is about=20 him that the Jewish Scriptures speak, in their whole extension, = and it is=20 in light of him that they are to be fully comprehended.

 

D.=20 Jewish Exegetical Methods employed in the New=20 Testament

1. = Jewish Methods=20 of Exegesis

12. Judaism derived from the Scriptures its = understanding of=20 God and of the world, as well as of God's plans. The clearest = expression=20 of how Jesus' contemporaries interpreted the Scriptures are given = in the=20 Dead Sea Scrolls, manuscripts copied between the second century = B.C. and=20 60 A.D., and so are therefore close to Jesus' ministry and the = formation=20 of the Gospels. However, these documents express only one aspect = of the=20 Jewish tradition; they come from within a particular current and = do not=20 represent the whole tradition.

The earliest rabbinic attestation of exegetical = method based=20 on Old Testament texts, is a series of seven =93rules=94 = traditionally=20 attributed to Rabbi Hillel (d. 10 A.D.). Irrespective of whether = this=20 attribution is well founded or not, these seven middoth = certainly=20 represent a codification of contemporary methods of argument from=20 Scripture, in particular for deducing rules of conduct.

Another method of using Scripture can be seen in = first=20 century historical writings, particularly Josephus, but it had = already=20 been employed in the Old Testament itself. It consists of using = biblical=20 terms to describe events in order to illuminate their meaning. = Thus, the=20 return from the Babylonian Exile is described in terms that evoke = the=20 liberation from Egyptian oppression at the time of the Exodus (Is=20 43:16-21). The final restoration of Zion is represented as a new=20 Eden.24 At Qumran, a similar technique was widely = used.

2.=20 Exegesis at Qumran and in the New Testament

13. With regard to form and method, the New = Testament,=20 especially the Gospels, presents striking resemblances to Qumran = in its=20 use of Scripture. The formulae for introducing quotations are = often the=20 same, for example: =93thus it is written=94, =93as it is = written=94, =93in=20 conformity with what was said=94. The similarity in scriptural = usage derives=20 from an outlook common to both the Qumran community and that of = the New=20 Testament. Both were eschatological communities that saw biblical=20 prophecies being fulfilled in their own time, in a manner = surpassing the=20 expectation and understanding of the Prophets who had originally = spoken=20 them. Both were convinced that the full understanding of the = prophecies=20 had been revealed to their founder and transmitted by him, =93the = Teacher of=20 Righteousness=94 at Qumran, Jesus for Christians.

Exactly as in the Dead Sea Scrolls, certain = biblical texts=20 are used in the New Testament in their literal and historical = sense, while=20 others are applied in a more or less forced manner, to the = contemporary=20 situation. Scripture was understood as containing the very words = of God.=20 Some interpretations, in both texts, take a word and separate it = from its=20 context and original meaning to give it a significance that does = not=20 correspond to the principles of modern exegesis. An important = difference,=20 however, should be noted. In the Qumran texts, the point of = departure is=20 Scripture. Certain texts =97 for example the pesher of = Habakkuk =97 are=20 an extended commentary on a biblical text, which is then applied, = verse by=20 verse, to a contemporary situation; others are collections of = texts=20 dealing with the same theme, for example, 11 Q Melchisedeq = on the=20 messianic era. In the New Testament, in contrast, the point of = departure=20 is the Christ event. It does not apply Scripture to the present, = but=20 explains and comments on the Christ event in the light of = Scripture. The=20 only points in common are the techniques employed, often with a = striking=20 similarity, as in Rm 10:5-13 and in the Letter to the=20 Hebrews.25

3.=20 Rabbinic Methods in the New Testament

14. Traditional Jewish methods of scriptural = argumentation=20 for the purpose of establishing rules of conduct =97 methods later = codified=20 by the rabbis =97 are frequently used in the words of Jesus = transmitted in=20 the Gospels and in the Epistles. Those occurring most often are = the first=20 two middoth (=93rules=94) of Hillel, qal wa-homer = and gezerah=20 shawah.26 These correspond more or less to = arguments=20 a fortiori and by analogy respectively.

A particular trait is that the argument often = revolves=20 around the meaning of a single word. This meaning is established = by its=20 occurence in a certain context and is then applied, often in a = very=20 artificial manner, to another context. This technique has a strong = resemblance to rabbinic midrash, with one characteristic = difference: in=20 the rabbinic midrash, there is a citation of differing opinions = from=20 various authorities in such a way that it becomes a technique of=20 argumentation, while in the New Testament the authority of Jesus = is=20 decisive.

Paul in particular frequently uses these = techniques=20 especially in discussions with well-informed Jewish adversaries, = whether=20 Christian or not. Oftentimes he uses them to counter traditional = positions=20 in Judaism or to support important points in his own=20 teaching.27

Rabbinic argumentation is also found in the = Letters to the=20 Ephesians and Hebrews.28 The Epistle of Jude, for its = part, is=20 almost entirely made up of exegetical explications resembling the=20 pesharim (=93interpretations=94) found in the Qumran = Scrolls and in=20 some apocalyptic writings. It uses figures and examples in a = verbal chain=20 structure in conformity with Jewish scriptural exegesis.

An particular form of Jewish exegesis found in the = New=20 Testament is the homily delivered in the synagogue. According to = Jn 6:59,=20 the Bread of Life discourse was delivered by Jesus in the = synagogue at=20 Capernaum. Its form closely corresponds to synagogal homilies of = the first=20 century: an explanation of a Pentateuchal text supported by a = prophetic=20 text; each part of the text is explained; slight adjustments to = the form=20 of words are made to give a new interpretation. Traces of this = model can=20 perhaps also be found in the missionary discourses in the Acts of = the=20 Apostles, especially in Paul's homily in the synagogue of Pisidian = Antioch=20 (Ac 13:17-41).

4.=20 Important Allusions to the Old Testament

15. The New Testament frequently uses allusions to = biblical=20 events as a means of bringing out the meaning of the events of = Jesus'=20 life. The narratives of Jesus' infancy in the Gospel of Matthew do = not=20 disclose their full meaning unless read against the background of = biblical=20 and post-biblical narratives concerning Moses. The infancy gospel = of Luke=20 is more in the style of biblical allusions found in the first = century=20 Psalms of Solomon or in the Qumran Hymns; the Canticles of Mary, = Zechariah=20 and Simeon can be compared to Qumran hymns.29 Events in = the=20 life of Jesus, like the theophany on the occasion of his baptism, = the=20 transfiguration, the multiplication of the loaves and the walking = on the=20 water, are similarly narrated with deliberate allusions to Old = Testaments=20 events and narratives. The reaction of listeners to Jesus' = parables (for=20 example, the parable of the murderous tenants, Mt 21:33-43 and = par.) shows=20 that they were accustomed to using biblical imagery as a technique = to=20 express a message or give a lesson.

Among the Gospels, Matthew shows greatest = familiarity with=20 the Jewish techniques in utilising Scripture. After the manner of = the=20 Qumran pesharim, he often quotes Scripture; he makes wide = use of=20 juridical and symbolic argumentation similar to those which were = common in=20 later rabbinic writings. More than the other Gospels, he uses = midrashic=20 stories in his narratives (the infancy gospel, the episode of = Judas'=20 death, the intervention of Pilate's wife). The rabbinic style of=20 argumentation frequently used, especially in the Pauline Letters = and in=20 the Letter to the Hebrews, undoubtedly attests that the New = Testament=20 emerged from the matrix of Judaism and that it is infused with the = mentality of Jewish biblical commentators.

 

E.=20 The Extension of the Canon of Scripture

16. The title =93canon=94 (Greek kan(o-)n, = =93rule=94) means=20 the list of books which are accepted as inspired by God and having = a=20 regulatory function for faith and morals. We are only concerned = here with=20 the formation of the canon of the Old Testament.

1. In = Judaism

There are differences between the Jewish canon = of=20 Scripture30 =93Law=94, Nebi'im, = =93Prophets=94, and=20 Ketubim, other =93Writings=94. The number 24 was often = reduced to 22,=20 the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. In the Christian = canon, to=20 these 2422 books correspond 39 books, called =93protocanonical=94. = The=20 numerical difference is explained by the fact that the Jews = regarded as=20 one book several writings that are distinct in the Christian = canon, the=20 writings of the Twelve Prophets, for example.] and the Christian = canon of=20 the Old Testament.31 To explain these differences, it = was=20 generally thought that at the beginning of the Christian era, = there=20 existed two canons within Judaism: a Hebrew or Palestinian canon, = and an=20 extended Alexandrian canon in Greek =97 called the Septuagint =97 = which was=20 adopted by Christians.

Recent research and discoveries, however, have = cast doubt on=20 this opinion. It now seems more probable that at the time of=20 Christianity's birth, closed collections of the Law and the = Prophets=20 existed in a textual form substantially identical with the Old = Testament.=20 The collection of =93Writings=94, on the other hand, was not as = well defined=20 either in Palestine or in the Jewish diaspora, with regard to the = number=20 of books and their textual form. Towards the end of the first = century=20 A.D., it seems that 2422 books were generally accepted by Jews as=20 sacred,32 but it is only much later that the list = became=20 exclusive.33 When the limits of the Hebrew canon were = fixed,=20 the deuterocanonical books were not included.

Many of the books belonging to the third group of = religious=20 texts, not yet fixed, were regularly read in Jewish communities = during the=20 first century A.D. They were translated into Greek and circulated = among=20 Hellenistic Jews, both in Palestine and in the diaspora.

2. In the = Early=20 Church

17. Since the first Christians were for the most = part=20 Palestinian Jews, either =93Hebrew=94 or =93Hellenistic=94 (cf. Ac = 6:1), their=20 views on Scripture would have reflected those of their = environment, but we=20 are poorly informed on the subject. Nevertheless, the writings of = the New=20 Testament suggest that a sacred literature wider than the Hebrew = canon=20 circulated in Christian communities. Generally, the authors of the = New=20 Testament manifest a knowledge of the deuterocanonical books and = other=20 non-canonical ones since the number of books cited in the New = Testament=20 exceeds not only the Hebrew canon, but also the so-called = Alexandrian=20 canon.34 When Christianity spread into the Greek world, = it=20 continued to use sacred books received from Hellenistic=20 Judaism.35 Although Hellenistic Christians received = their=20 Scriptures from the Jews in the form of the Septuagint, we do not = know the=20 precise form, because the Septuagint has come down to us only in = Christian=20 writings. What the Church seems to have received was a body of = Sacred=20 Scripture which, within Judaism, was in the process of becoming = canonical.=20 When Judaism came to close its own canon, the Christian Church was = sufficiently independent from Judaism not to be immediately = affected. It=20 was only at a later period that a closed Hebrew canon began to = exert=20 influence on how Christians viewed it.

3. = Formation of the Christian Canon

18. The Old Testament of the early Church took = different=20 shapes in different regions as the diverse lists from Patristic = times=20 show. The majority of Christian writings from the second century, = as well=20 as manuscripts of the Bible from the fourth century onwards, made = use of=20 or contain a great number of Jewish sacred books, including those = which=20 were not admitted into the Hebrew canon. It was only after the = Jews had=20 defined their canon that the Church thought of closing its own Old = Testament canon. But we are lacking information on the procedure = adopted=20 and the reasons given for the inclusion of this or that book in = the canon.=20 It is possible, nevertheless, to trace in a general way the = evolution of=20 the canon in the Church, both in the East and in the West.

In the East from Origen's time (c. 185-253) = there was=20 an attempt to conform Christian usage to the Hebrew canon of 2422 = books=20 using various combinations and stratagems. Origen himself knew of = the=20 existence of numerous textual differences, which were often = considerable,=20 between the Hebrew and the Greek Bible. To this was added the = problem of=20 different listings of books. The attempt to conform to the Hebrew = text of=20 the Hebrew canon did not prevent Christian authors in the East = from=20 utilising in their writings books that were never admitted into = the Hebrew=20 canon, or from following the Septuagint text. The notion that the = Hebrew=20 canon should be preferred by Christians does not seem to have = produced in=20 the Eastern Church either a profound or long-lasting = impression.

In the West, the use of a larger collection = of sacred=20 books was common and was defended by Augustine. When it came to = selecting=20 books to be included in the canon, Augustine (354-430) based his = judgement=20 on the constant practice of the Church. At the beginning of the = fifth=20 century, councils adopted his position in drawing up the Old = Testament=20 canon. Although these councils were regional, the unanimity = expressed in=20 their lists represents Church usage in the West.

As regards the textual differences between the = Greek and the=20 Hebrew Bible, Jerome based his translation on the Hebrew text. For = the=20 deuterocanonical books, he was generally content to correct the = Old Latin=20 (translation). From this time on, the Church in the West = recognised a=20 twofold biblical tradition: that of the Hebrew text for books of = the=20 Hebrew canon, and that of the Greek Bible for the other books, all = in a=20 Latin translation.

Based on a time-honoured tradition, the Councils = of Florence=20 in 1442 and Trent in 1564 resolved for Catholics any doubts and=20 uncertainties. Their list comprises 73 books, which were accepted = as=20 sacred and canonical because they were inspired by the Holy = Spirit, 46 for=20 the Old Testament, 27 for the New.36 In this way the = Catholic=20 Church received its definitive canon. To determine this canon, it = based=20 itself on the Church's constant usage. In adopting this canon, = which is=20 larger than the Hebrew, it has preserved an authentic memory of = Christian=20 origins, since, as we have seen, the more restricted Hebrew canon = is later=20 than the formation of the New Testament.

 

II.
FUNDAMENTAL = THEMES
IN THE=20 JEWISH SCRIPTURES
AND THEIR RECEPTION
INTO FAITH IN = CHRIST

19. To the Jewish Scriptures which it received as = the=20 authentic Word of God, the Christian Church added other Scriptures = expressing its faith in Jesus, the Christ. It follows then that = the=20 Christian Bible is not composed of one =93Testament=94, but two = =93Testaments=94,=20 the Old and the New, which have complex, dialectical relationships = between=20 them. A study of these relationships is indispensable for anyone = who=20 wishes to have a proper appreciation of the links between the = Christian=20 Church and the Jewish people. The understanding of these = relationships has=20 changed over time. The present chapter offers firstly an overview = of these=20 changes, followed by a more detailed study of the basic themes = common to=20 both Testaments.

 

A.=20 Christian Understanding of the relationships between the Old = and New=20 Testaments

1.=20 Affirmation of a reciprocal relationship

By =93Old Testament=94 the Christian Church has no = wish to=20 suggest that the Jewish Scriptures are outdated or = surpassed.37=20 On the contrary, it has always affirmed that the Old Testament and = the New=20 Testament are inseparable. Their first relationship is precisely = that. At=20 the beginning of the second century, when Marcion wished to = discard the=20 Old Testament, he met with vehement resistance from the = post-apostolic=20 Church. Moreover, his rejection of the Old Testament led him to = disregard=20 a major portion of the New =97 he retained only the Gospel of Luke = and some=20 Pauline Letters =97 which clearly showed that his position was = indefensible.=20 It is in the light of the Old Testament that the New understands = the life,=20 death and glorification of Jesus (cf. 1 Co 15:3-4).

This relationship is also reciprocal: on the one = hand, the=20 New Testament demands to be read in the light of the Old, but it = also=20 invites a =93re-reading=94 of the Old in the light of Jesus Christ = (cf. Lk=20 24:45). How is this =93re-reading=94 to be done? It extends to = =93all the=20 Scriptures=94 (Lk 24:27) to =93everything written in the Law of = Moses, the=20 Prophets and the Psalms=94 (24:44), but the New Testament only = offers a=20 limited number of examples, not a methodology.

2.=20 Re-reading the Old Testament in the light of Christ

The examples given show that different methods = were used,=20 taken from their cultural surroundings, as we have seen=20 above.38 The texts speak of typology39 and = of=20 reading in the light of the Spirit (2 Co 3:14-17). These suggest a = twofold=20 manner of reading, in its original meaning at the time of writing, = and a=20 subsequent interpretation in the light of Christ.

In Judaism, re-readings were commonplace. The Old = Testament=20 itself points the way. For example, in the episode of the manna, = while not=20 denying the original gift, the meaning is deepened to become a = symbol of=20 the Word through which God continually nourishes his people (cf. = Dt=20 8:2-3). The Books of Chronicles are a re-reading of the Book of = Genesis=20 and the Books of Samuel and Kings. What is specific to the = Christian=20 re-reading is that it is done, as we have said, in the light of=20 Christ.

This new interpretation does not negate the = original=20 meaning. Paul clearly states that =93the very words of God were = entrusted=94=20 to the Israelites (Rm 3:2) and he takes it for granted that these = words of=20 God could be read and understood before the coming of Christ. = Although he=20 speaks of a blindness of the Jews with regard to =93the reading of = the Old=20 Testament=94 (2 Co 3:14), he does not mean a total incapacity to = read, only=20 an inability to read it in the light of Christ.

3. = Allegorical=20 Re-reading

20. The Hellenistic world had different methods of = which=20 Christian exegesis made use as well. The Greeks often interpreted = their=20 classical texts by allegorising them. Commenting on ancient poetry = like=20 the works of Homer, where the gods seem to act like capricious and = vindictive humans, scholars explained this in a more religious and = morally=20 acceptable way by emphasising that the poet was expressing himself = in an=20 allegorical manner when he wished to describe only human = psychological=20 conflicts, the passions of the soul, using the fiction of war = between the=20 gods. In this case, a new and more spiritual meaning replaced the = original=20 one.

Jews in the diaspora sometimes utilised this = method, in=20 particular to justify certain prescriptions of the Law which, = taken=20 literally, would appear nonsensical to the Hellenistic world. = Philo of=20 Alexandria, who had been nurtured in Hellenistic culture, tended = in this=20 direction. He developed, often with a touch of genius, the = original=20 meaning, but at other times he adopted an allegorical reading that = completely overshadowed it. As a result, his exegesis was not = accepted in=20 Judaism.

In the New Testament, there is a single mention of = =93things=20 spoken allegorically=94 (allgoroumena: Ga 4:24), but here = it is a=20 question of typology, that is, the persons mentioned in the = ancient text,=20 are presented as evoking things to come, without the slightest = doubt being=20 cast on their historicity. Another Pauline text uses allegory to = interpret=20 a detail of the Law (1 Co 9:9), but he never adopted this method = as a=20 general rule.

The Fathers of the Church and the medieval = authors, in=20 contrast, make systematic use of it for the entire Bible, even to = the=20 least detail =97 both for the New Testament as well as for the Old = =97 to give=20 a contemporary interpretation capable of application to the = Christian=20 life. For example, Origen sees the wood used by Moses to sweeten = the=20 bitter waters (Ex 15:22-25) as an allusion to the wood of the = cross; he=20 sees the scarlet thread used by Rahab as a means of recognising = her house=20 (Jos 2:18), as an allusion to the blood of the Saviour. Any detail = capable=20 of establishing contact between an Old Testament episode and = Christian=20 realities was exploited. In every page of the Old Testament, in = addition,=20 many direct and specific allusions to Christ and the Christian = life were=20 found, but there was a danger of detaching each detail from its = context=20 and severing the relationship between the biblical text and the = concrete=20 reality of salvation history. Interpretation then became = arbitrary.

Certainly, the proposed teaching had a certain = value because=20 it was animated by faith and guided by a comprehensive = understanding of=20 Scripture read in the Tradition. But such teaching was not based = on the=20 commentated text. It was superimposed on it. It was inevitable, = therefore,=20 that at the moment of its greatest success, it went into = irreversible=20 decline.

4. = Return to the=20 Literal Sense

Thomas Aquinas saw clearly what underpinned = allegorical=20 exegesis: the commentator can only discover in a text what he = already=20 knows, and in order to know it, he had to find it in the literal = sense of=20 another text. From this Thomas Aquinas drew the conclusion: a = valid=20 argument cannot be constructed from the allegorical sense, it can = only be=20 done from the literal sense.40

Starting from the Middle Ages, the literal sense = has been=20 restored to a place of honour and has not ceased to prove its = value. The=20 critical study of the Old Testament has progressed steadily in = that=20 direction culminating in the supremacy of the historical-critical=20 method.

And so an inverse process was set in motion: the = relation=20 between the Old Testament and Christian realities was now = restricted to a=20 limited number of Old Testament texts. Today, there is the danger = of going=20 to the opposite extreme of denying outright, together with the = excesses of=20 the allegorical method, all Patristic exegesis and the very idea = of a=20 Christian and Christological reading of Old Testament texts. This = gave=20 rise in contemporary theology, without as yet any consensus, to = different=20 ways of re-establishing a Christian interpretation of the Old = Testament=20 that would avoid arbitrariness and respect the original = meaning.

5. = The=20 Unity of God's Plan and the Idea of Fulfilment

21. The basic theological presupposition is that = God's=20 salvific plan which culminates in Christ (cf. Ep 1:3-14) is a = unity, but=20 that it is realised progressively over the course of time. Both = the unity=20 and the gradual realisation are important; likewise, continuity in = certain=20 points and discontinuity in others. From the outset, the action of = God=20 regarding human beings has tended towards final fulfilment and,=20 consequently, certain aspects that remain constant began to = appear: God=20 reveals himself, calls, confers a mission, promises, liberates, = makes a=20 covenant. The first realisations, though provisional and = imperfect,=20 already give a glimpse of the final plenitude. This is = particularly=20 evident in certain important themes which are developed throughout = the=20 entire Bible, from Genesis to Revelation: the way, the banquet, = God's=20 dwelling among men. Beginning from a continuous re-reading of = events and=20 texts, the Old Testament itself progressively opens up a = perspective of=20 fulfilment that is final and definitive. The Exodus, the = primordial=20 experience of Israel's faith (cf. Dt 6:20-25; 26:5-9) becomes the = symbol=20 of final salvation. Liberation from the Babylonian Exile and the = prospect=20 of an eschatological salvation are described as a new = Exodus.41=20 Christian interpretation is situated along these lines with this=20 difference, that the fulfilment is already substantially realised = in the=20 mystery of Christ.

The notion of fulfilment is an extremely complex=20 one,42 one that could easily be distorted if there is a = unilateral insistence either on continuity or discontinuity. = Christian=20 faith recognises the fulfilment, in Christ, of the Scriptures and = the=20 hopes of Israel, but it does not understand this fulfilment as a = literal=20 one. Such a conception would be reductionist. In reality, in the = mystery=20 of Christ crucified and risen, fulfilment is brought about in a = manner=20 unforeseen. It includes transcendence.43 Jesus is not = confined=20 to playing an already fixed role =97 that of Messiah =97 but he = confers, on=20 the notions of Messiah and salvation, a fullness which could not = have been=20 imagined in advance; he fills them with a new reality; one can = even speak=20 in this connection of a =93new creation=94.44 It would = be wrong to=20 consider the prophecies of the Old Testament as some kind of = photographic=20 anticipations of future events. All the texts, including those = which later=20 were read as messianic prophecies, already had an immediate import = and=20 meaning for their contemporaries before attaining a fuller meaning = for=20 future hearers. The messiahship of Jesus has a meaning that is new = and=20 original.

The original task of the prophet was to help his=20 contemporaries understand the events and the times they lived in = from=20 God's viewpoint. Accordingly, excessive insistence, characteristic = of a=20 certain apologetic, on the probative value attributable to the = fulfilment=20 of prophecy must be discarded. This insistence has contributed to = harsh=20 judgements by Christians of Jews and their reading of the Old = Testament:=20 the more reference to Christ is found in Old Testament texts, the = more the=20 incredulity of the Jews is considered inexcusable and = obstinate.

Insistence on discontinuity between both = Testaments and=20 going beyond former perspectives should not, however, lead to a = one-sided=20 spiritualisation. What has already been accomplished in Christ = must yet be=20 accomplished in us and in the world. The definitive fulfilment = will be at=20 the end with the resurrection of the dead, a new heaven and a new = earth.=20 Jewish messianic expectation is not in vain. It can become for us=20 Christians a powerful stimulant to keep alive the eschatological = dimension=20 of our faith. Like them, we too live in expectation. The = difference is=20 that for us the One who is to come will have the traits of the = Jesus who=20 has already come and is already present and active among us.

6. Current=20 Perspectives

The Old Testament in itself has great value as the = Word of=20 God. To read the Old Testament as Christians then does not mean = wishing to=20 find everywhere direct reference to Jesus and to Christian = realities.=20 True, for Christians, all the Old Testament economy is in movement = towards=20 Christ; if then the Old Testament is read in the light of Christ, = one can,=20 retrospectively, perceive something of this movement. But since it = is a=20 movement, a slow and difficult progression throughout the course = of=20 history, each event and each text is situated at a particular = point along=20 the way, at a greater or lesser distance from the end. = Retrospective=20 re-readings through Christian eyes mean perceiving both the = movement=20 towards Christ and the distance from Christ, prefiguration and=20 dissimilarity. Conversely, the New Testament cannot be fully = understood=20 except in the light of the Old Testament.

The Christian interpretation of the Old Testament = is then a=20 differentiated one, depending on the different genres of texts. It = does=20 not blur the difference between Law and Gospel, but distinguishes=20 carefully the successive phases of revelation and salvation = history. It is=20 a theological interpretation, but at the same time historically = grounded.=20 Far from excluding historical-critical exegesis, it demands = it.

Although the Christian reader is aware that the = internal=20 dynamism of the Old Testament finds its goal in Jesus, this is a=20 retrospective perception whose point of departure is not in the = text as=20 such, but in the events of the New Testament proclaimed by the = apostolic=20 preaching. It cannot be said, therefore, that Jews do not see what = has=20 been proclaimed in the text, but that the Christian, in the light = of=20 Christ and in the Spirit, discovers in the text an additional = meaning that=20 was hidden there.

7.=20 Contribution of Jewish reading of the Bible

22. The horror in the wake of the extermination of = the Jews=20 (the Shoah) during the Second World War has led all the = Churches to=20 rethink their relationship with Judaism and, as a result, to = reconsider=20 their interpretation of the Jewish Bible, the Old Testament. It = may be=20 asked whether Christians should be blamed for having monopolised = the=20 Jewish Bible and reading there what no Jew has found. Should not=20 Christians henceforth read the Bible as Jews do, in order to show = proper=20 respect for its Jewish origins?

In answer to the last question, a negative = response must be=20 given for hermeneutical reasons. For to read the Bible as Judaism = does=20 necessarily involves an implicit acceptance of all its = presuppositions,=20 that is, the full acceptance of what Judaism is, in particular, = the=20 authority of its writings and rabbinic traditions, which exclude = faith in=20 Jesus as Messiah and Son of God.

As regards the first question, the situation is = different,=20 for Christians can and ought to admit that the Jewish reading of = the Bible=20 is a possible one, in continuity with the Jewish Sacred Scriptures = from=20 the Second Temple period, a reading analogous to the Christian = reading=20 which developed in parallel fashion. Both readings are bound up = with the=20 vision of their respective faiths, of which the readings are the = result=20 and expression. Consequently, both are irreducible.

On the practical level of exegesis, Christians = can,=20 nonetheless, learn much from Jewish exegesis practised for more = than two=20 thousand years, and, in fact, they have learned much in the course = of=20 history.45 For their part, it is to be hoped that Jews=20 themselves can derive profit from Christian exegetical = research.

 

B. = Shared=20 Fundamental Themes

1. Revelation = of=20 God

23. A God who speaks to humans. The God of = the Bible=20 is one who enters into communication with human beings and speaks = to them.=20 In different ways, the Bible describes the initiative taken by God = to=20 communicate with humanity in choosing the people of Israel. God = makes his=20 word heard either directly or though a spokesperson.

In the Old Testament, God manifests himself to = Israel as the=20 One who speaks. The divine word takes the form of a promise made = to Moses=20 to bring the people of Israel out of Egypt (Ex 3:7-17), following = the=20 promises made to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, for = their=20 descendants.46 There is also the promise David receives = in 2 S=20 7:1-17 concerning an offspring who will succeed him on the = throne.

After the departure from Egypt, God commits = himself to his=20 people by a covenant in which he twice takes the initiative (Ex = 19-24;=20 32-34). In this setting, Moses receives the Law from God, often = called=20 =93words of God=9447 which he must transmit to = the=20 people.

As bearer of the word of God, Moses is considered = a=20 prophet,48 and even more than a prophet (Nb 12:6-8). = Throughout=20 the course of the people's history, prophets were conscious of=20 transmitting the word of God. The narratives of the prophetic call = show=20 how the word of God comes, forcefully imposes itself, and invites = a=20 response. Prophets like Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezechiel perceive = God's word=20 as an event which changed their lives.49 Their message = is=20 God's; to accept it is to accept the word of God. Even though it = meets=20 with resistance because of human freedom, the word of God is=20 efficacious:50 it is a force working at the heart of = history.=20 In the narrative of the creation of the world by God (Gn 1), we = discover=20 that, for God, to say is to do.

The New Testament prolongs this perspective and = deepens it.=20 For Jesus becomes the preacher of the word of God (Lk 5:1) and = appeals to=20 Scripture: he is recognised as a prophet,51 but he is = more than=20 a prophet. In the Fourth Gospel, the role of Jesus is = distinguished from=20 that of John the Baptist by opposing the earthly origin of the = latter to=20 the heavenly origin of the former: =93The one who comes from=20 above...testifies to what he has seen and heard... he whom God has = sent=20 speaks the words of God=94 (Jn 3:31,32,34). Jesus is not simply a = messenger;=20 he makes plain his intimacy with God. To understand Jesus' = mission, is to=20 know his divine status: =93I have not spoken on my own=94, Jesus = says; =93what I=20 speak, I speak just as the Father has told me=94 (Jn 12:49,50). = Beginning=20 from this bond which unites Jesus to the Father, the Fourth Gospel = confesses Jesus as the Logos =93the Word=94 which =93became = flesh=94 (Jn=20 1:14).

The opening of the Letter to the Hebrews perfectly = summarises the way that has been traversed: God who =93spoke long = ago to our=20 ancestors by the prophets=94, =93has spoken to us by a Son=94 (Hb = 1:1-2), this=20 Jesus of whom the Gospels and the apostolic preaching speak.

24. God is One. The strongest affirmation = of the=20 Jewish faith is that of Dt 6:4: =93Hear, O Israel, the lordour God = is one=20 lord=94,which may not be separated from its consequences for the = faithful:=20 =93you shall love the lordyour God with all your heart, with all = your soul=20 and all your might=94 (Dt 6:5).52 The one God of = Israel, the=20 lordwill be acknowledged as the one God of all humanity at the end = of time=20 (Zc 14:9). God is ONE: this proclamation points to the language of = love=20 (cf. Sg 6:9). The God who loves Israel is confessed as unique and = calls=20 each one to respond to that love by a love ever total.

Israel is called to acknowledge that the God who = brought it=20 out of Egypt is the only one who liberated it from slavery. This = God alone=20 has rescued Israel and Israel must express its faith in him by = keeping the=20 Law and through the cult.

The affirmation =93The lordis one=94was not = originally an=20 expression of radical monotheism, for the existence of other gods = was not=20 denied as, for example, the Decalogue shows (Ex 20:3). From the = time of=20 the Exile, the faith affirmation tended to become one of radical=20 monotheism formulated through expressions like =93the gods are = nothing=94 (Is=20 45:14) or =93there is no other=94.53 In later Judaism = the=20 profession of Dt 6:4 becomes one of monotheistic faith; it is at = the heart=20 of Jewish prayer.

In the New Testament the profession of Jewish = faith is=20 repeated by Jesus himself in Mk 12:29, quoting Dt 6:4-5, and by = his Jewish=20 questioner who quotes Dt 4:35. The Christian faith also affirms = the=20 oneness of God for =93there is no God but one=94.54 = This oneness of=20 God is firmly held, even when Jesus is recognised as Son (Rm = 1:3-4),=20 united with the Father (Jn 10:30; 17:11). For the glory that comes = from=20 the one God is received by Jesus from the Father as the =93only = Son full of=20 grace and truth=94 (Jn 1:14). To express the Christian faith, Paul = does not=20 hesitate to divide into two the profession of Dt 6:4 to say: = =93For us there=20 is one God, the Father...and one Lord, Jesus Christ=94 (1 Co = 8:6).

25. God the Creator and providence. The = Bible opens=20 with the words: =93In the beginning God created the heavens and = the earth=94=20 (Gn 1:1); this heading dominates the text of Gn 1:1-2:4(a) as well = as the=20 whole of Scripture which recounts the divine acts of power. In = this=20 opening text, the affirmation of the goodness of creation is = repeated=20 seven times, becoming one of the refrains (Gn 1:4-31).

In different formulations, in different contexts, = the=20 affirmation of God as Creator is constantly repeated. Thus in the=20 narrative of the Exodus from Egypt, God exercises power over the = wind and=20 the sea (Ex 14:21). In Israel's prayer, God is confessed as the = one =93who=20 made heaven and earth=94.55 The creative action of God = is the=20 foundation and assurance of the salvation to come, likewise in = prayer (Ps=20 121:2), as well as in the pronouncements of the prophets, for = example in=20 Jr 5:22 and 14:22. In Is 40-55, this creative action is the basis = of hope=20 for a salvation to come.56 The sapiential books give = the=20 creative work of God a central place.57

The God who creates the world by his Word (Gn 1) = and gives=20 human beings the breath of life (Gn 2:7), is also the one who = shows=20 solicitude towards every human being from the moment of=20 conception.58

Outside the Hebrew Bible, the text of 2 M 7:28 = should be=20 mentioned where the mother of the seven martyred brothers exhorts = the last=20 one in the following way: =93I beg you, my child, to look at the = heaven and=20 the earth, and see everything that is in them and recognise that = God did=20 not make them out of things that existed=94. The Latin translation = has=20 creation ex nihilo =93from nothing=94. An interesting = aspect of this=20 text is that the creative action of God serves here to ground = faith in the=20 resurrection of the just. The same is true of Rm 4:17.

Faith in God the Creator, vanquisher of the cosmic = forces=20 and of evil, becomes inseparable from trust in him as Saviour of = the=20 Israelite people as well as of individuals.59

26. In the New Testament, the conviction that all = existing=20 things are the work of God comes straight from the Old Testament. = It seems=20 so obvious that no proof is needed and creation vocabulary is not=20 prominent in the Gospels. Nevertheless, there is in Mt 19:4 a = reference to=20 Gn 1:27 which speaks of the creation of man and woman. More = generally, Mk=20 13:19 recalls =93the beginning of the creation that God = created=94. Lastly, Mt=20 13:35(b) referring to parables speaks of =93what has been hidden = from the=20 foundation of the world=94.

In his preaching, Jesus frequently insists on the = trust=20 human beings should have in God on whom everything depends: =93Do = not worry=20 about your life what you will eat or about your body with what you = will=20 wear... Look at the birds of the air; they neither sow nor reap... = and yet=20 your heavenly Father feeds them=94.60 The care of God = the Creator=20 extends to both good and bad, on whom =93he makes his sun to = rise=94 and to=20 whom he sends rain to fructify the earth (Mt 5:45). The providence = of God=20 embraces all; for Jesus' disciples, this conviction ought to lead = them to=20 seek =93first the kingdom of God and his righteousness=94 (Mt = 6:33). In the=20 Gospel of Matthew, Jesus speaks of =93the kingdom prepared for you = from the=20 foundation of the world=94 (Mt 25:34). The world created by God is = where the=20 salvation of human beings takes place; it awaits a complete = =93regeneration=94=20 (Mt 19:28).

Beginning from the Jewish Bible which affirms that = God=20 created all things by his word,61 the prologue of the = Fourth=20 Gospel proclaims that =93in the beginning was the Word=94, that = =93the Word was=20 God=94 and that =93all things came into being through him=94 and = =93without him=20 not one thing came into being=94 (Jn 1:1-3). The Word came into = the world,=20 yet the world did not know him (Jn 1:10). In spite of human = obstacles,=20 God's plan is clearly defined in Jn 3:16: =93God so loved the = world that he=20 gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not = perish,=20 but may have eternal life=94. Jesus witnesses to this love of God = to the=20 very end (Jn 13:1). After the resurrection Jesus =93breathes=94 on = the=20 disciples, repeating God's action in the creation of human beings = (Gn=20 2:7), and suggesting that a new creation will be the work of the = Holy=20 Spirit (Jn 20:22).

Using a different vocabulary, the Book of = Revelation offers=20 a similar perspective. The creator God (Rv 4:11) is the originator = of a=20 plan of salvation that could not be realised except by the Lamb, = =93as if=20 sacrificed=94 (Rv 5:6), accomplished in the paschal mystery by him = who is=20 =93the origin of God's creation=94 (Rv 3:14). In history, the = victory over the=20 forces of evil will go hand in hand with a new creation that will = have God=20 himself as light,62 and a temple will no longer be = needed, for=20 the Almighty God and the Lamb will be the Temple of the heavenly = city, the=20 new Jerusalem (Rv 21:2,22).

In the Pauline Letters, creation has an equally = important=20 place. The argument of Paul in Rm 1:20-21 concerning the pagans is = well=20 known. The apostle affirms that =93since the creation of the = world, his=20 eternal power and divine nature, invisible though they are, have = been=20 understood and seen through the things he has made=94, and so the = pagans are=20 =93without excuse=94 in not giving glory to God and having = =93served the=20 creature rather than the Creator=94 (Rm 1:25; cf. Ws 13:1-9). = Creation will=20 be freed =93from its bondage to decay=94 (Rm 8:20-21). So creation = then may=20 not be rejected as evil. In 1 Tm 4:4, it is affirmed that = =93everything=20 created by God is good, and nothing is to be rejected provided it = is=20 received with thanksgiving=94.

In the act of creation, the role attributed to = Wisdom in the=20 Old Testament is attributed in the New Testament to the person of = Christ,=20 the Son of God. Like the =93Word=94 in John's prologue (1:3), it = is a=20 universal mediation, expressed in Greek by the preposition = dia,=20 which is also found in Heb 1:2. Associated with =93the Father = from whom=20 are all things=94, it is Jesus Christ =93through whom = are all=20 things=94 (1 Co 8:6). Developing this theme, the hymn of Col = 1:15-20 affirms=20 that =93in him all things were created=94 and that =93all things = have been=20 created through him and for him; he is before all things, in him = all=20 things hold together=94 (Col 1:16-17).

On the other hand, the resurrection of Christ is = understood=20 as the inauguration of a new creation, of a kind that =93if anyone = is in=20 Christ, he is a =91new creation'=94.63 Faced with the = proliferation=20 of human sin, the plan of God in Christ was to bring about a new = creation.=20 We will take up this theme later after treating of the human=20 condition.

2.=20 The Human Person: Greatness and Wretchedness

a) In the Old Testament

27. It is common place to speak in one phrase of = the=20 =93greatness and wretchedness=94 of the human person. These terms = are not=20 found in the Old Testament to characterise the human condition, = but=20 equivalent expressions are encountered: in the first three = chapters of=20 Genesis, man and woman are, on the one hand, =93created in the = image of God=94=20 (Gn 1:27), but are also =93sent forth from the garden of Eden=94 = (Gn 3:24)=20 because they disobeyed the command of God. These chapters set the = tone for=20 reading the entire Bible. Everyone is invited to recognise therein = the=20 essential traits of the human situation and the basis for the = whole of=20 salvation history.

Created in the image of God: affirmed = before the call=20 of Abraham and the election of Israel, this characteristic applies = to all=20 men and women of all times and places (Gn 1:26-27)64 = and=20 confers on them their highest dignity. The expression may have = originated=20 in the royal ideology of the nations surrounding Israel, = especially in=20 Egypt, where the Pharaoh was regarded as the living image of god,=20 entrusted with the maintenance and renewal of the cosmos. But the = Bible=20 has made this metaphor into a fundamental category for defining = every=20 human person. God's words: =93Let us make man in our image, = according to our=20 likeness, and let them have dominion over...=94 (Gn 1:26) show = that human=20 beings are creatures of God whose task it is to govern the earth = that was=20 created and populated by God. Insofar as they are images of God = and the=20 Creator's stewards, human beings become recipients of his word and = are=20 called to be obedient to him (Gn 2:15-17).

Human beings exist as man and woman whose task is = at the=20 service of life. In the affirmation: =93God created man in his = image, in the=20 image of God he created him, male and female he created them=94 = (Gn 1:27),=20 the differentiation of the sexes is paralleled with the = relationship to=20 God.

Furthermore, human procreation is closely = associated with=20 the task of governing the earth, as the divine blessing of the = first human=20 couple shows: =93Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and = subdue it,=20 and have dominion over...=94 (1:28). In this way, the likeness to = God, the=20 relationship of man and woman, and ruling over the world are = intimately=20 connected.

The close relationship between being created in = God's image=20 and having authority over the earth has many consequences. First = of all,=20 the universality of these characteristics excludes all superiority = of one=20 group or individual over another. All human beings are in the = image of God=20 and all are charged with furthering the Creator's work of = ordering.=20 Secondly, arrangements are made with a view to the harmonious = co-existence=20 of all living things in their search for the necessary means of=20 subsistence: God provides for both humans and beasts (Gn=20 1:29-30).65 Thirdly, human existence is endowed with a = certain=20 rhythm. As well as the rhythm of day and night, lunar months and = solar=20 years (Gn 1:14-18), God establishes a weekly rhythm with rest on = the=20 seventh day, the basis of the sabbath (Gn 2:1-3). When they keep = the=20 sabbath observance (Ex 20:8-11), the masters of the earth render = homage to=20 their Creator.

28. Human wretchedness finds its exemplary = biblical=20 expression in the story of the first sin and punishment in the = garden of=20 Eden. The narrative of Gn 2:4(b)-3:24 complements that of Gn = 1:1-2:4(a) by=20 explaining how, in a creation that was =93good=9466 and = with the=20 creation of humans even =93very good=94 (Gn 1:31), wretchedness is = nevertheless introduced.

The narrative defines the task given to the man, = =93to till=20 and keep=94 the garden of Eden (Gn 2:15), adding the prohibition = not =93to eat=20 of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil=94 (2:16-17). This = prohibition=20 implies that serving God and keeping his commandments are = correlatives of=20 the power to subdue the earth (Gn 1:26,28).

The man fulfils God's intentions first of all by = naming the=20 animals (2:18-20) and then in accepting the woman as God's gift = (2:23). In=20 the temptation scene, in contrast, the human couple ceases to act = in=20 accordance with God's demands. By eating the fruit of the tree, = the woman=20 and the man succumb to the temptation to be like God and to = acquiring a=20 =93knowledge=94 that belongs to God alone (3:5-6). The result is = that they try=20 to avoid a confrontation with God. But their attempt to hide = themselves=20 shows the folly of sin, because it leaves them in the very place = where the=20 voice of God can be heard (3:8). God's question which indicts the = man:=20 =93Where are you?=94 suggests that he is not where he ought to be: = at the=20 service of God and working at his task (3:9). The man and the = woman=20 perceive that they are naked (3:7-10), which means that they have=20 forfeited trust in each other and in the harmony of creation.

By his sentence, God redefines the conditions of = human=20 living but not the relationship between him and the couple = (3:17-19). On=20 the other hand, the man is relieved of his particular task in the = garden,=20 but not of work (3:17-19,23). He is now oriented towards the = =93soil=94 (3:23;=20 cf. 2:5). In other words, God continues to give human beings a = task. In=20 order to =93subdue the earth and have dominion over it=94 (1:28), = man must now=20 work (3:23).

Henceforth, =93pain=94 is the constant companion = of the woman=20 (3:16) and the man (3:17); death is their destiny (3:19). The = relationship=20 between man and wife deteriorates. The word =93pain=94 is = associated with=20 pregnancy and birth (3:16), and with physical and mental fatigue = resulting=20 from work as well (3:17).67 Paradoxically, into what = should be=20 in themselves a source of profound joy, childbirth and = productivity, pain=20 is introduced. The verdict assigns =93pain=94 to their existence = on the=20 =93soil=94, which has been cursed because of their sin (3:17-18). = Likewise for=20 death: the end of human life is called a return =93to the soil=94 = from which=20 the man was taken to fulfil his task.68 In Gn 2-3, = immortality=20 seems to be dependent on existence in the garden of Eden and = conditioned=20 by respect for the prohibition of eating from the tree of = =93knowledge=94.=20 When this prohibition is violated, access to the tree of life = (2:9) is=20 henceforth blocked (3:22). In Wi 2:23-24, immortality is = associated with=20 likeness to God: =93death entered the world through the devil's = envy=94, and=20 so a connection is established between Gn 1 and Gn 2-3.

Created in God's image and charged with = cultivating the=20 soil, the human couple have the great honour of being called to = complete=20 the creative action of God in taking care of his creatures (Wi = 9:2-3). By=20 refusing to heed the voice of God and preferring that of creatures = human=20 freedom is brought into play; to suffer pain and death is the = consequence=20 of a choice made by the persons themselves. =93Wretchedness=94 = becomes a=20 universal aspect of the human condition, but this aspect is = secondary and=20 does not abolish the =93greatness=94 willed in God's plan for his=20 creatures.

The chapters following in Genesis show to what = level the=20 human race can sink in sin and wretchedness: =93The earth was = corrupt in=20 God's sight and was filled with violence... All flesh had = corrupted its=20 ways upon the earth=94 (Gn 6:11-12), to the extent that God = decided on the=20 deluge. But at least one man, Noah, together with his family = =93walked with=20 God=94 (6:9), and God chose him to be the beginning of a new = departure for=20 humanity. From his posterity, God chose Abraham, commanding him to = leave=20 his country and promising =93to make [his] name great=94 (Gn = 12:2). The plan=20 of God is now revealed as a universal one, for in Abraham =93all = the=20 families of the earth shall be blessed=94 (12:3). The Old = Testament reveals=20 how this plan was realised through the ages, with alternating = moments of=20 wretchedness and greatness. Yet God was never resigned to leaving = his=20 people in wretchedness. He always reinstates them in the path of = true=20 greatness, for the benefit of the whole of humanity.

To these fundamental traits, it may be added that = the Old=20 Testament is not unaware of either the deceptive aspects of human=20 existence (cf. Qo), the problem of innocent suffering (cf. = especially=20 Job), or the scandal of the persecution suffered by the innocent = (cf. the=20 stories of Elijah, Jeremiah, and the Jews persecuted by = Antiochus). But in=20 every case, especially the last, far from being an obstacle to = human=20 greatness, the experience of wretchedness, paradoxically, served = to=20 enhance greatness.

b) In the New Testament

29. The anthropology of the New Testament is based = on that=20 of the Old. It bears witness to the grandeur of the human person = created=20 in God's image (Gn 1:26-27) and to his wretchedness, brought on by = the=20 undeniable reality of sin, which makes him into a caricature of = his true=20 self.

Greatness of the human person. In the = Gospels the=20 greatness of the human being stands out in the solicitude shown to = him by=20 God, more than that of the birds of heaven or the flowers of the = fields=20 (Mt 6:30); it is also highlighted by the ideal proposed to him: to = become=20 merciful as God is merciful (Lk 6:36), perfect as God is perfect = (Mt=20 5:45,48). For the human being is a spiritual being who =93does not = live by=20 bread alone, but by every word that comes from the mouth of God=94 = (Mt 4:4;=20 Lk 4:4). It is hunger for the word of God that draws the crowds = first to=20 John the Baptist (Mt 3:5-6 and par.) and then to = Jesus.69 A=20 glimpse of the divine draws them. As the image of God, the human = person is=20 attracted towards God. Even the pagans are capable of great=20 faith.70

It was the apostle Paul who deepened = anthropological=20 reflection. As =93apostle of the nations=94 (Rm 11:13), he = understood that all=20 people are called by God to a very great glory (1 Th 2:12), that = of=20 becoming children of God,71 loved by him (Rm 5:8), = members of=20 the body of Christ (1 Co 12:27), filled with the Holy Spirit (1 Co = 6:19).=20 One can scarcely imagine a greater dignity.

The theme of the creation of the human person in = God's image=20 is treated by Paul in a multifaceted way. In 1 Co 11:7, the = apostle=20 applies it to man =93who is the image and glory of God=94. = Elsewhere, he=20 applies it to Christ =93who is the image of God=9472 = The vocation=20 of the human person called by God is to become =93conformed to the = image of=20 his Son, in order that he may be a firstborn among many = brothers=94 (Rm=20 8:29). It is by contemplating the glory of the Lord that this = resemblance=20 is bestowed (2 Co 3:18; 4:6). Begun in this life, transformation = is=20 achieved in the next when =93we will bear the image of the = heavenly man=94 (1=20 Co 15:49). The greatness of the human person will then reach its=20 culmination.

30. The wretchedness of the human being. = The wretched=20 state of humanity appears in various ways in the New Testament. It = is=20 clear that earth is no paradise! The Gospels repeatedly give a = long list=20 of maladies and infirmities that beset people.73 In the = Gospels=20 demonic possession shows the abject slavery into which the whole = person=20 can fall (Mt 8:28-34 and par.). Death strikes and gives rise to=20 sorrow.74

But it is especially moral misery that is the = focus of=20 attention. Humanity finds itself in a situation of sin that puts = it in=20 extreme danger.75 Because of this, the invitation to = conversion=20 makes its presence felt. The preaching of John the Baptist = reverberates=20 with force in the desert.76 Then Jesus takes up the = cry; =93he=20 proclaimed the good news of God and said... repent and believe in = the good=20 news=94 (Mk 1:14-15); =93he went about all the cities and = villages=94 (Mt 9:35).=20 He denounced the evil =93that comes out of a person=94 and = =93defiles=94 him (Mk=20 7:20). =93For it is from within, from the human heart that evil = intentions=20 come: fornication, theft, murder, adultery, avarice, wickedness, = deceit,=20 licentiousness, envy, slander, pride, folly. All these evil things = come=20 from within and they defile a person=94.77 In the = parable of the=20 prodigal son, Jesus described the miserable state to which the = human=20 person is reduced when he is far from his Father's house (Lk=20 15:13-16).

Jesus also spoke of persecutions suffered by = people who=20 dedicate themselves to the cause of =93righteousness=94 (Mt 5:10) = and=20 predicted that his disciples would be persecuted.78 He = himself=20 was (Jn 5:16); people sought to have him killed.79 This = murderous intention ended by bringing it about. The passion of = Jesus was=20 then an extreme manifestation of the moral wretchedness of = humanity.=20 Nothing was missing: betrayal, denial, abandonment, unjust trial = and=20 condemnation, insults and ill-treatment, cruel sufferings = accompanied by=20 mockery. Human wickedness was released against =93the Holy and = Just One=94 (Ac=20 3:14) and put him in a state of terrible wretchedness.

It is in Paul's Letter to the Romans that we find = the most=20 sombre description of the moral decay of humanity (Rm 1:18-3:20), = and the=20 most penetrating analysis of the condition of the sinner (Rm = 7:14-25). The=20 picture which the apostle paints of =93all ungodliness and = wickedness of=20 those who by their wickedness suppress the truth=94 is truly = overwhelming.=20 Their refusal to give glory to God and to thank him leads to = complete=20 blindness and to the worst perversions (1:21-32). Paul wants to = show that=20 moral decay is universal and that the Jew is not exempt, in spite = of the=20 privilege of knowing the Law (2:17-24). He supports his thesis by = a long=20 series of texts from the Old Testament which declares that all = people are=20 sinners (3:10-18): =93There is no one who is righteous, not even=20 one=94.80 This all-embracing negation is assuredly not = the fruit=20 of experience. It is more in the nature of a theological intuition = of what=20 humans become without the grace of God: evil is in the heart of = each one=20 (cf. Ps 51:7). This intuition of Paul is reinforced by the = conviction that=20 Christ =93died for all=94.81 Therefore, all have need = of=20 redemption. If sin were not universal, there would be some who = would have=20 had no need of redemption.

The Law did not bring with it a remedy for sin, = for even if=20 he recognises that the Law is good and wishes to keep it, the = sinner is=20 forced to declare: =93For I do not do the good I want, but the = evil I do not=20 want is what I do=94 (Rm 7:19). The power of sin avails of the Law = itself to=20 manifest its destructiveness all the more, by inciting = transgression=20 (7:13). And sin produces death82 that provokes the = sinner's cry=20 of distress: =93Wretched man that I am! Who will rescue me from = this body of=20 death?=94 (Rm 7:24). Thus is manifested the urgent need of = redemption.

On a different note, but still quite forcefully, = the Book of=20 Revelation itself witnesses to the ravages of evil produced in the = human=20 world. It describes =93Babylon=94, =93the great prostitute=94, who = has captivated=20 =93the kings of the earth=94 and =93the inhabitants of the = earth=94 in their=20 abominations and who is =93drunk with the blood of the saints and = of the=20 witnesses to Jesus=94 (Rv 17:1-6). =93Their sins are heaped high = as heaven=94=20 (18:5). Evil releases terrible calamities. But it will not have = the last=20 word. Babylon falls (18:2). From heaven descends =93the holy city, = the new=20 Jerusalem=94, =93the abode of God among men=94 (21:2-3). The = salvation that=20 comes from God is opposed to the proliferation of evil.

3. = God, Liberator=20 and Saviour

a) In the Old Testament

31. From the beginning of its history, with the = Exodus=20 from Egypt, Israel had experienced the lordas Liberator and = Saviour:=20 to this the Bible witnesses, describing how Israel was rescued = from=20 Egyptian power at the time of the crossing of the sea (Ex = 14:21-31). The=20 miraculous crossing of the sea becomes one of the principal themes = for=20 praising God.83 Together with Israel's entrance to the = Promised=20 Land (Ex 15:17), the Exodus from Egypt becomes the principal = affirmation=20 of their profession of faith.84

One must be aware of the theological significance = contained=20 in the Old Testament formulations that express the Lord's = intervention in=20 this salvific event which was foundational for Israel: the = lord=93led out=94=20 Israel from Egypt, =93the house of slavery=94 (Ex 20:2; Dt 5:6), = he =93brought=20 them up=94 to =93a good and broad land, a land flowing with milk = and honey=94=20 (Ex 3:8,17), he =93rescued=94 them from their oppressors (Ex 6:6; = 12:27), he=20 =93ransomed=94 them as slaves are ransomed (p~d~h: Dt 7:8), = or by=20 exercising a right of kin (g~'al: Ex 6:6; 15:13).

In the land of Canaan, continuing the = experience of=20 liberation from Egypt, Israel was once again the recipient of the=20 liberating and salvific intervention of God. Oppressed by enemy = peoples=20 because of its infidelity towards God, Israel called to him for = help. The=20 Lord raised up a =93judge=94 as =93saviour=94.85

In the anguished situation of the Exile =96 = after the=20 loss of the Land =96 Second Isaiah, a prophet whose name is = unknown,=20 announced to the exiles an unheard-of message: the Lord was about = to=20 repeat his original liberating intervention =97 that of the Exodus = from=20 Egypt =97 and even to surpass it. To the descendants of his chosen = ones,=20 Abraham and Jacob (Is 41:8), he would manifest himself as = =93Redeemer=94=20 (g(o-)'l) in rescuing them from their foreign masters, the=20 Babylonians.86 =93I, I am the Lord, and besides me = there is no=20 Saviour; I declared and saved=94 (Is 43:11-12). As =93Saviour=94 = and =93Redeemer=94=20 of Israel, the lordwill be known to all men (Is 49:26).

After the return of the exiles, seen as imminent = by Second=20 Isaiah and soon to become a reality =97 but not in a very = spectacular manner=20 =97 the hope of eschatological liberation began to dawn: = the=20 spiritual successors of the exilic prophet announced the = fulfilment, yet=20 to come, of the redemption of Israel as a divine intervention at = the end=20 of time.87 It is as Saviour of Israel that the = messianic prince=20 is presented at the end of time (Mi 4:14-5:5).

In many of the Psalms, salvation takes on = an=20 individual aspect. Caught in the grip of sickness or = hostile=20 intrigues, an Israelite can invoke the Lord to be preserved from = death or=20 oppression.88 He can also implore help from God for the = king=20 (Ps 20:10). He has confidence in the saving intervention of God = (Ps=20 55:17-19). In return, the faithful and especially the king (Ps 18 = =3D 2 S=20 22), give thanks to the Lord for the help obtained and for the end = of=20 oppression.89

Furthermore, Israel hopes that the Lord will = =93redeem it from=20 all its faults=94 (Ps 130:8).

In some texts, salvation after death makes = its=20 appearance. What, for Job, was only a glimmer of hope (=93My = redeemer lives=94=20 Jb 19:25) becomes a sure hope in the Psalm: =93But God will ransom = my soul=20 from the power of Sheol, for he will receive me=94 (Ps 49:15). = Likewise, in=20 Ps 73:24 the Psalmist says: =93Afterwards you will receive me in = glory=94. God=20 then can not only subdue the power of death to prevent the = faithful from=20 being separated from him, he can lead them beyond death to a = participation=20 in his glory.

The Book of Daniel and the = Deuterocanonical=20 Writings take up the theme of salvation and develop it = further.=20 According to apocalyptic expectation, the glorification of =93the = wise ones=94=20 (Dn 12:3) =97 no doubt, the people who are faithful to the Law in = spite of=20 persecution =97 will take their place in the resurrection of the = dead=20 (12:2). The sure hope of the martyrs' rising =93for eternal = life=94 (2 M 7:9)=20 is forcefully expressed in the Second Book of = Maccabees.90=20 According to the Book of Wisdom =93people were taught... = and were=20 saved by wisdom=94 (Ws 9:19). The just man is a =93son of God=94, = so God =93will=20 help him and deliver him from the hand of his adversaries=94 = (2:18),=20 preserve him from death or save him beyond death, for =93the = hope=94 of the=20 just is =93full of immortality=94 (3:4).

b) In the New Testament

32. The New Testament follows the Old in = presenting God as=20 Saviour. From the beginning of the Gospel of Luke, Mary praises = God her=20 =93Saviour=94 (Lk 1:47) and Zechariah blesses =93the Lord, the God = of Israel,=20 because he has...redeemed his people=94 (Lk 1:68); the theme of = salvation=20 resounds four times in the =93Benedictus=9491 with ever = greater=20 precision: from the desire to be delivered from their enemies = (1:71,74) to=20 being delivered from sin (1:77). Paul proclaims that the Gospel is = =93the=20 power of God for salvation to everyone who has faith=94 (Rm = 1:16).

In the Old Testament, to bring about liberation = and=20 salvation, God makes use of human instruments, who, as we have = seen, were=20 sometimes called saviours, as God himself more often was. In the = New=20 Testament, the title =93redeemer=94 (lytr(o-)ts) appears = only once and=20 is given to Moses who is sent as such by God (Ac = 7:35).92 The=20 title =93Saviour=94 is given to God and to Jesus. The very name of = Jesus=20 evokes the salvation given by God. The first Gospel draws = attention to it=20 early on and makes it clear that it has to do with spiritual = salvation:=20 the infant conceived by the virgin Mary will receive =93the name = Jesus, for=20 he will save his people from their sins=94 (Mt 1:21). In the = Gospel of Luke,=20 the angels announce to the shepherds: =93To you is born this day a = Saviour=94=20 (Lk 2:11). The Fourth Gospel opens up a wider perspective when the = Samaritans proclaim that Jesus =93is truly the Saviour of the = world=94 (Jn=20 4:42).

It can be said that in the Gospels, the Acts of = the Apostles=20 and in the uncontested Pauline Letters, the New Testament is very = sparing=20 in its use of the title Saviour.93 This reticence is = explained=20 by the fact that the title was widely used in the Hellenistic = world; it=20 was conferred on gods such as Asclepius, a healer god, and on = divinized=20 kings who were hailed as saviours of the people. The title, then, = could=20 become ambiguous. Furthermore, the notion of salvation, in the = Greek=20 world, had a strong individual and physical connotation, while the = New=20 Testament, in continuity with the Old, had a collective amplitude = and was=20 open to the spiritual. With the passage of time, the danger of = ambiguity=20 lessened. The Pastoral Letters and Second Peter use the title = Saviour=20 often and apply it both to God and to Christ.94

In Jesus' public life, his power to save was = manifested not=20 only in the spiritual plane, as in Lk 19:9-10, but also =97 and = frequently =97=20 in the bodily realm as well. Jesus cures sick people and heals=20 them;95 he observes: =93It is your faith that has saved = you=94.96 The disciples implore him to rescue them from = danger=20 and he accedes to their request.97 He liberates even = from=20 death.98 On the cross his enemies mockingly recall that = =93he=20 saved others=94 and they defy him to =93save himself and come down = from the=20 cross=94.99 But Jesus rejects a salvation of this kind = for=20 himself, because he has come to =93give his life as a ransom = (lytron:=20 means of liberation) for the many=94. 100 People = wanted to=20 make him a national liberator, 101 but he declined. He = has=20 brought salvation of a different kind.

The relationship between salvation and the Jewish = people=20 becomes an explicit object of theological reflection in John: = =93Salvation=20 comes from the Jews=94 (Jn 4:22). This saying of Jesus is found in = a context=20 of opposition between Jewish and Samaritan cults, that will become = obsolete with the introduction of adoration =93in spirit and = truth=94 (4:23).=20 At the end of the episode, the Samaritans acknowledge Jesus as = =93the=20 Saviour of the world=94 (Jn 4:42).

The title Saviour is above all attributed to the = risen=20 Jesus, for, by his resurrection, =93God exalted him at his right = hand as=20 Leader and Saviour that he might give repentance and forgiveness = of sins=94=20 (Ac 5:31). =93There is salvation in no other=94 (4:12). The = perspective is=20 eschatological. =93Save yourselves=94 Peter said, =93from this = corrupt=20 generation=94 (Ac 2:40) and Paul presents the risen Jesus to = Gentile=20 converts as the one =93who rescues us from the wrath that is = coming=94 (1 Th=20 1:10). =93Now that we have been justified by his blood, much more = surely=20 will we be saved through him from the wrath=94 (Rm 5:9).

This salvation was promised to the Israelite = people, but the=20 =93nations=94 can also participate since the Gospel is =93the = power of God for=20 salvation to everyone who has faith, to the Jew first, and also = the=20 Greek=94. 102 The hope of salvation, expressed so often = and so=20 forcefully in the Old Testament, finds its fulfilment in the = New.

4. The = Election of=20 Israel

a) In the Old Testament

33. God is the Liberator and Saviour, above all, = of an=20 insignificant people =97 situated along with others between two = great=20 empires =97 because he has chosen this people for himself, setting = them=20 apart for a special relationship with him and for a mission in the = world.=20 The idea of election is fundamental for an understanding of the = Old=20 Testament and indeed for the whole Bible.

The affirmation that the lordhas =93chosen=94 = (b~char)=20 Israel is one of the more important teachings of Deuteronomy. = The=20 choice which the Lord made of Israel is manifest in the divine=20 intervention to free it from Egypt and in the gift of the land.=20 Deuteronomy explicitly denies that the divine choice was motivated = by=20 Israel's greatness or its moral perfection: =93Know that the lord = your God=20 is not giving you this good land to occupy because of your = righteousness;=20 for you are a stubborn people=94 (9:6). The only basis for God's = choice was=20 his love and faithfulness: =93It is because he loved you and kept = the oath=20 that he swore to your ancestors=94 (7:8).

Chosen by God, Israel is called a =93holy = people=94 (Dt=20 7:6; 14:2). The word =93holy=94 (q~d=F4=9A) expresses, = negatively, a=20 separation from what is profane and, positively, a consecration to = God's=20 service. By using the expression =93holy people=94, Deuteronomy = emphasises=20 Israel's unique situation, a nation introduced into the domain of = the=20 sacred, having become the special possession of God and the object = of his=20 special protection. At the same time, the importance of Israel's = response=20 to the divine initiative is underlined as well as the necessity of = appropriate conduct. In this way, the theology of election throws = light=20 both on the distinctive status and on the special responsibility = of a=20 people who, in the midst of other peoples, has been chosen as the = special=20 possession of God, 103 to be holy as God is holy.=20 104

In Deuteronomy, the theme of election not only = concerns=20 people. One of the more fundamental requirements of the book is = that the=20 cult of the Lord be celebrated in the place which the Lord has = chosen. The=20 election of the people appears in the hortatory introduction to = the laws,=20 but in the laws themselves, divine election is concentrated on one = sanctuary. 105 Other books focus on the place where = this=20 sanctuary is located and narrow the divine choice to the election = of one=20 tribe and one person. The chosen tribe is Judah in preference to=20 Ephraim, 106 the chosen person is David. 107 = He=20 takes possession of Jerusalem and the fortress of Zion becomes the = =93City=20 of David=94 (2 S 5:6-7), to it the ark of the covenant is = transferred (2 S=20 6:12). Thus the Lord has chosen Jerusalem (2 Ch 6:5) or more = precisely,=20 Zion (Ps 132:13), for his dwelling place.

For the Israelites in troubled and difficult = times, when the=20 future seemed closed, the conviction of being God's chosen people=20 sustained their hope in the mercy of God and in fidelity to his = promises.=20 During the Exile, Second Isaiah takes up the theme of = election=20 108 to console the exiles who thought they were abandoned by = God (Is=20 49:14). The execution of God's justice had not brought an end to = Israel's=20 election, this remained solid, because it was founded on the = election of=20 the patriarchs. 109 To the idea of election, Second = Isaiah=20 attached the idea of service in presenting Israel as =93the = servant of the=20 lord=94 110 destined to be =93the light of the = nations=94 (49:6).=20 These texts clearly show that election, the basis of hope, brings = with it=20 a responsibility: Israel is to be, before the nations, the = =93witness=94 to=20 the one God. 111 In bearing this witness, the Servant = will come=20 to know the lordas he is (43:10).

The election of Israel does not imply the = rejection of the=20 other nations. On the contrary, the presupposition is that the = other=20 nations also belong to God, for =93the earth belongs to the Lord = with all=20 that is in it=94 (Dt 10:14) and God =93apportioned the nations = their=20 patrimony=94 (32:8). When Israel is called by God =93my first-born = son=94 (Ex=20 4:22; Jr 31:9) and =93the first-fruits of the harvest=94 (Jr 2:3), = these=20 metaphors imply that other nations are equally part of God's = family and=20 harvest. This understanding of election is typical of the Bible as = a=20 whole.

34. In its teaching on Israel's election, = Deuteronomy, as we=20 have said, puts the accent on the divine initiative, but also on = the=20 demands of the relationship between God and his people. Faith in = the=20 election could, nevertheless, harden into a proud superiority. The = prophets battled against this deviation. A message of Amos = relativises the=20 election and attributes to the nations the privilege of an exodus=20 comparable to Israel's (Am 9:7). Another message says that = election brings=20 with it, on God's part, a greater severity: =93You only have I = known of all=20 the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all = your=20 iniquities=94 (Am 3:2). Amos believes that the Lord had chosen = Israel in a=20 unique and special manner. In the context, the verb =93to know=94 = has a more=20 profound and intimate meaning than consciousness of existence. It=20 expresses a personal relationship more intimate than simply = intellectual=20 knowledge. But this relationship brings with it specific moral = demands.=20 Because it is God's people, Israel must live as God's people. If = it fails=20 in this duty, it will receive a =93visit=94 of divine justice = harsher than=20 that of the other nations.

For Amos, it is clear that election means = responsibility=20 more than privilege. Obviously, the choice comes first = followed=20 by the demand. It is nonetheless true that God's election of = Israel=20 implies a high level of responsibility. By recalling this, the = prophet=20 disposes of the illusion that being God's chosen people means = having a=20 claim on God.

The peoples' and their kings' obstinate = disobedience=20 provoked the catastrophe of the Exile as foretold by the prophets. = =93The=20 lordsaid: I will also remove Judah out of my sight as I have = removed=20 Israel; I will reject this city that I have chosen, Jerusalem, and = the=20 house of which I said, =91My name shall be there'=94 (2 K 23:27). = This decree=20 of God produced its effect (2 K 25:1-21). But at the very moment = when it=20 was said: =93The two families that the lordchose have been = rejected by him=94=20 (Jr 33:24), the Lord formally contradicts it: =93I will restore = their=20 fortunes and will have mercy on them=94 (Jr 33:26). The prophet = Hosea had=20 already announced that at a time when Israel had become for God=20 =93Not-my-people=94 (Ho 1:8), God will say: =93You are my = people=94 (Ho 2:25).=20 Jerusalem must be rebuilt; the prophet Haggai predicts for the = rebuilt=20 Temple a glory greater than that of Solomon's Temple (Hg 2:9). In = this=20 way, the election was solemnly reconfirmed.

b) In the New Testament

35. The expression =93chosen people=94 is not = found in the=20 Gospels, but the conviction that Israel is God's chosen people is = taken=20 for granted although expressed in other terms. Matthew applies to = Jesus=20 the words of Micah where God speaks of Israel as my people; = God=20 says of the child born in Bethlehem: =93He will shepherd my = people=20 Israel=94 (Mt 2:6: Mi 5:3). The choice of God and his fidelity to = his chosen=20 people is reflected later in the mission entrusted by God to = Jesus: he has=20 only been sent =93to the lost sheep of the house of Israel=94 (Mt = 15:24).=20 Jesus himself uses the same words to limit the first mission of = the=20 =93twelve apostles=94 (Mt 10:2, 5-6).

But the opposition Jesus encounters from the = leaders brings=20 about a change of perspective. At the conclusion of the parable of = the=20 murderous vineyard tenants, addressed to the =93chief priests=94 = and =93elders=20 of the people=94 (Mt 21:23), Jesus says to them: =93The kingdom of = God will be=20 taken away from you and given to a nation that will produce its = fruits=94=20 (21:43). This word does not mean, however, the substitution of a = pagan=20 nation for the people of Israel. The new =93nation=94 will be, on = the=20 contrary, in continuity with the chosen people, for it will have = as a=20 =93cornerstone=94 the =93stone rejected by the builders=94 = (21:42), who is Jesus,=20 a son of Israel, and it will be composed of Israelites with whom = will be=20 associated in =93great numbers=94 (Mt 8:11) people coming from = =93all the=20 nations=94 (Mt 28:19). The promise of God's presence with his = people which=20 guaranteed Israel's election, is fulfilled by the presence of the = risen=20 Lord with his community. 112

In the Gospel of Luke, the canticle of Zechariah = proclaims=20 that =93the God of Israel has visited his people=94 (Lk = 1:68), and that=20 the mission of Zechariah's son will be a =93going ahead of the = Lord=94 so as=20 to =93give his people knowledge of salvation through the = forgiveness=20 of their sins=94 (1:76-77). During the presentation of the child = Jesus in=20 the Temple, Simeon qualifies the salvation brought by God as = =93glory for=20 your people Israel=94 (2:32). Later on, a great miracle performed = by Jesus=20 gives rise to the crowd's exclamation: =93God has visited his = people=94=20 (7:16).

Nevertheless, for Luke a certain tension remains = because of=20 the opposition encountered by Jesus. This opposition, however, = comes from=20 the people's leaders, not from the people themselves who are = favourably=20 disposed towards Jesus. 113 In the Acts of the = Apostles, Luke=20 emphasises that a great number of Peter's Jewish listeners, on the = day of=20 Pentecost and following, accepted his appeal to repent. = 114 On=20 the other hand, the narrative of Acts underlines that, on three = occasions,=20 in Asia Minor, Greece and Rome, the opposition initiated by the = Jews=20 forced Paul to relocate his mission among the Gentiles. = 115 In=20 Rome, Paul recalls, for the Jewish leaders, Isaiah's oracle = predicting the=20 hardening of =93this people=94. 116 Thus the New = Testament, like=20 the Old, has two different perspectives on God's chosen = people.

At the same time, there is an awareness that = Israel's=20 election is not an exclusive privilege. Already the Old Testament=20 announced the attachment of =93all the nations=94 to the God of = Israel.=20 117 Along the same lines, Jesus announces that =93many will = come from=20 the east and west and take their place in the banquet with = Abraham, Isaac=20 and Jacob=94. 118 The risen Jesus extends the apostles' = mission=20 and the offer of salvation to the =93whole world=94. = 119

Because of this, the First Letter of Peter, = addressed mostly=20 to believers converted from paganism, confers on them the titles = =93chosen=20 people=94 120 and =93holy nation=94 121 in = the same manner=20 as those converted from Judaism. Formerly, they were not a people, = henceforth they are the =93people of God=94. 122 The = Second Letter=20 of John calls the Christian community whom he addresses as =93the = chosen=20 lady=94 (v.1), and =93your chosen sister=94 (v.13) the = community from=20 which it was sent. To newly converted pagans Paul does not = hesitate to=20 declare: =93We know, brothers, beloved by God, that he has = chosen=20 you... (1 Th 1:4). Thus, the conviction of partaking in the = divine=20 election was communicated to all Christians.

36. In the Letter to the Romans, Paul makes clear = that for=20 Christians who have come from paganism, what is involved is a=20 participation in Israel's election, God's special people. The = Gentiles are=20 =93the wild olive shoot=94, =93grafted to the real olive=94 to = =93share the riches=20 of the root=94 (Rm 11:17,24). They have no need to boast to the = prejudice of=20 the branches. =93It is not you that support the root, but the root = that=20 supports you=94 (11:18).

To the question of whether the election of Israel = remains=20 valid, Paul gives two different answers: the first says that the = branches=20 have been cut off because of their refusal to believe (11:17,20), = but =93a=20 remnant remains, chosen by grace=94 (11:5). It cannot, = therefore, be=20 said that God has rejected his people (11:1-2). =93Israel failed = to attain=20 what it was seeking. The elect [that is, the chosen = remnant]=20 attained it, but the rest were hardened=94 (11:7). The second = response says=20 that the Jews who became =93enemies as regards the Gospel=94 = remain =93beloved=20 as regards election, for the sake of the ancestors=94 = (11:28) and=20 Paul foresees that they will obtain mercy (11:27,31). The Jews do = not=20 cease to be called to live by faith in the intimacy of God =93for = the gifts=20 and calling of God are irrevocable=94 (11:29).

The New Testament never says that Israel has been = rejected.=20 From the earliest times, the Church considered the Jews to be = important=20 witnesses to the divine economy of salvation. She understands her = own=20 existence as a participation in the election of Israel and in a = vocation=20 that belongs, in the first place, to Israel, despite the fact that = only a=20 small number of Israelites accepted it.

While Paul compares the providence of God to the = work of a=20 potter who prepares for honour =93vessels of mercy=94 (Rm 9:23), = he declines=20 to say that these vessels are exclusively or principally the = Gentiles,=20 rather they represent both Gentiles and Jews with a certain = priority for=20 Jews: =93He called us not from the Jews only, but also from the = Gentiles=94=20 (9:24).

Paul recalls that Christ =93born under the Law=94 = (Ga 4:4) has=20 become =93a servant to the circumcised on behalf of the truth of = God, in=20 order that he might confirm the promises given to the = patriarchs=94 (Rm=20 15:8), meaning that Christ not only was circumcised, but is at the = service=20 of the circumcised because God has made promises to the patriarchs = which=20 were binding. =93As regards the Gentiles=94, the apostle says = =93they glorify=20 God for his mercy=94 (15:9), and not for his fidelity, for their = entry into=20 the people of God is not the result of divine promises, it is = something=20 over and above what is owed to them. Therefore, it is the Jews who = will=20 first praise God among the nations; they will then invite the = nations to=20 rejoice with the people of God (15:9(b)-10).

Paul himself recalls with pride his Jewish = origins.=20 123 In Rm 11:1, he mentions his status as =93an Israelite, a = descendent of Abraham, a member of the tribe of Benjamin=94 as = proof that=20 God has not rejected his people. In 2 Co 11:22, he sees it as a = title of=20 honour parallel to his title as minister of Christ (11:23). It is = true=20 that in Ph 3:7, these advantages which were for him gains, he now = =93regards=20 as loss, because of Christ=94. But the point he is making here is = that these=20 advantages, instead of leading to Christ, kept him at a distance = from=20 him.

In Rm 3:1-2, Paul affirms unhesitatingly =93the = superiority of=20 the Jews and the value of circumcision=94. Because first and most = important,=20 =93the oracles of God were entrusted to them=94. Other reasons are = given later=20 on in Rm 9:4-5, forming an impressive list of God's gifts and not = only of=20 promises: to Israelites belong =93the adoption, the glory, the = covenants,=20 the Law, the worship, the promises and the Patriarchs, and from = them=20 according to the flesh came the Messiah=94 (Rm 9:4-5).

Nevertheless, Paul immediately adds that it is not = enough to=20 belong physically to Israel in order to rank among the =93children = of God=94.=20 Before all else it is necessary to be =93children of the = promise=94 (Rm=20 9:6-8), which, according to the apostle's thinking, implies = belonging to=20 Christ Jesus in whom =93every one of God's promises is a Yes=94 (2 = Co 1:20).=20 According to the Letter to the Galatians, the =93offspring of = Abraham=94 can=20 only be one which is identified with Christ and those who belong = to him=20 (Ga 3:16,29). But the apostle emphasises that =93God has not cast = off his=20 people=94 (Rm 11:2). Since =93the root is holy=94 (11:16), Paul is = convinced=20 that at the end, God, in his inscrutable wisdom, will graft all = Israel=20 back onto their own olive tree (11:24); =93all Israel will be = saved=94=20 (11:26).

It is because of our common roots and from this=20 eschatological perspective that the Church acknowledges a special = status=20 of =93elder brother=94 for the Jewish people, thereby giving them = a unique=20 place among all other religions. 124

5. The = Covenant

a) In the Old Testament

37. As we have seen, the election of Israel = presents a=20 double aspect: it is a gift of love with a corresponding demand. = The Sinai=20 covenant clearly shows this double aspect.

As with the theology of election, that of the = covenant is=20 from beginning to end a theology of the people of the lord. = Adopted by the=20 lord as his son (cf. Ex 3:10, 4:22-23), Israel was to live totally = and=20 exclusively for him. The notion of covenant then, by its very = definition,=20 is opposed to an election of Israel that would automatically = guarantee its=20 existence and happiness. Election is to be understood as a calling = that=20 Israel as a people is to live out. The establishment of a covenant = demanded on Israel's part a choice and a decision every bit as = much as it=20 had for God. 125

As well as being employed in the Sinai = narrative=20 126 (Ex 24:3-8), the word ber=EEt, generally = translated as=20 =93covenant=94, appears in different biblical traditions, in = particular those=20 of Noah, Abraham, David, Levi and levitical priesthood; it is = regularly=20 used in Deuteronomy and in the Deuteronomic History. In each = context, the=20 word has different nuances of meaning. The usual translation of = ber=EEt=20 as =93covenant=94 is often inappropriate. For the word can = also mean more=20 generally =93promise=94, which is also a parallel with =93oath=94 = to express a=20 solemn pledge.

Promise to Noah(Gn 9:8-17). After the = deluge, God=20 tells Noah and his sons that he is going to establish a bond = (ber=EEt)=20 between them and all living creatures. No obligation is = imposed on=20 Noah or on his descendants. God commits himself without reserve. = This=20 unconditional commitment on God's part towards creation is the = basis of=20 all life. Its unilateral character, that is, without imposing = obligations=20 on another, is evident by the fact that this promise explicitly = includes=20 the animals (=93as many as came out of the ark=94: 9:10). The = rainbow is to be=20 a sign of God's promise. As long as it continues to appear in the = clouds,=20 God will recall his =93everlasting promise=94 to =93all flesh that = is on the=20 earth=94 (9:16).

Promise to Abraham(Gn 15:1-21; 17:1-26). = According to=20 Gn 15, the lordmakes a promise to Abraham expressed in these = terms: =93To=20 your descendants I give this land=94 (15:18). The narrative makes = no mention=20 of a reciprocal obligation. The unilateral character of the = promise is=20 confirmed by the solemn rite which precedes the divine = declaration. It is=20 a rite of self-imprecation: passing between the two halves of the=20 slaughtered animals, the person making the promise calls down on = himself a=20 similar fate, should he fail in his obligations (cf. Jr 34:18-20). = If Gn=20 15 were a covenant with reciprocal obligations, both parties would = have to=20 participate in the rite. But this is not the case: the lordalone,=20 represented by =93a flaming torch=94 passes between the portions = of animal=20 flesh.

The notion of promise in Gn 15 is also found in Gn = 17 joined=20 to a commandment. God imposes a general obligation of moral = perfection on=20 Abraham (17:1) and one particular positive prescription, = circumcision=20 (17:10-14). The words: =93Walk before me and be blameless=94 = (17:1) connote a=20 total and unconditional dependence on God. The promise of a = ber=EEt=20 follows (17:2) and includes promises of extraordinary = fecundity=20 (17:4-6) and the gift of the land (17:8). These promises are = unconditional=20 and differ from those of the Sinai covenant (Ex 19:5-6). The word = ber=EEt=20 appears 17 times in this chapter, with a basic meaning of = solemn=20 promise, but envisaging something more than a promise: here an = everlasting=20 bond is created between God and Abraham together with his = posterity: =93I=20 will be your God=94 (Gn 17:8).

Just as the rainbow is the sign of the covenant = with Noah,=20 circumcision is the =93sign=94 of the promise for Abraham, except = that=20 circumcision depends on a human decision. It is a mark that = identifies=20 those who will benefit from God's promise. Those who do not bear = that mark=20 will be cut off from the people, because they have broken the bond = (Gn=20 17:14).

38. The Covenant at Sinai. The text of Ex = 19:4-8=20 shows the fundamental importance of the covenant of God with = Israel. The=20 poetic symbolism used =97 =93carry on eagles' wings=94 =97 shows = clearly how the=20 covenant is intimately connected with the great liberation begun = at the=20 crossing of the Red Sea. The whole idea of covenant depends on = this divine=20 initiative. The redemption accomplished by the lordat the time of = the=20 Exodus from Egypt constitutes forever the foundation for fidelity = and=20 docility towards him.

The one acceptable response to this act of = redemption is one=20 of continual gratitude, which expresses itself in sincere = submission.=20 =93Now, if you obey my voice and keep my covenant...=94 (19:5a): = these=20 stipulations should not be regarded as a basis for the covenant, = but=20 rather as a condition to be fulfilled in order to continue to = enjoy the=20 blessings promised by the Lord to his people. The acceptance of = the=20 proffered covenant includes, on the one hand, obligations and = guarantees,=20 on the other, a special status: =93You shall be my treasured = possession=20 (segullah)=94. In other words: =93You shall be for me a = priestly=20 kingdom and a holy nation=94 (19:5b, 6).

Ex 24:3-8 brings to fulfilment the establishment = of the=20 covenant announced in 19:3-8. The separation of the blood into two = equal=20 parts prepares for the celebration of the rite. Half of the blood = is=20 poured on the altar, consecrated to God, while the other half is = sprinkled=20 on the assembled Israelites who are now consecrated as a holy = people of=20 the lordand preordained to his service. The beginning (19:8) and = the end=20 (24:3,7) of this great event, the founding of the covenant, are = marked by=20 a repetition of the same formula of response on the part of the = people:=20 =93Everything that the lordhas spoken, we will do.=94

This relationship did not last. Israel adored the = golden=20 calf (Ex 32:1-6). The narrative recounting this infidelity and its = consequences constitutes a reflection on the breaking of the = covenant and=20 its re-establishment. The people have experienced the anger of God = =97 he=20 speaks of destroying them (32:10). But the repeated intercession = of=20 Moses, 127 the intervention of the Levites against the=20 idolators (32:26-29), and the people's repentance (33:4-6) secure = a=20 promise from God not to carry out his threats (32:14) and to agree = instead=20 to walk once more with his people (33:14-17). God takes the = initiative in=20 re-establishing the covenant (34:1-10). These chapters reflect the = conviction that, from the beginning, Israel tended to be = unfaithful to the=20 covenant, but that God, on his part, always restored = relations.

The covenant of course is only a human way of = conceiving the=20 relationship of God with his people. As with all human concepts of = this=20 kind, it is an imperfect expression of the relationship between = the divine=20 and the human. The objective of the covenant is defined simply: = =93I will be=20 your God and you will be my people=94 (Lv 26:12; cf. Ex 6:7). The = covenant=20 must not be understood simply as a bilateral contract, for God = cannot be=20 obligated in the same way as human beings. Nevertheless, the = covenant=20 allows the Israelites to appeal to God's fidelity. Israel has not = been the=20 only one to make a commitment. The lordcommits himself to the gift = of the=20 land as well as his own beneficent presence in the midst of his=20 people.

Covenant in Deuteronomy. Deuteronomy and = the=20 redaction of the historical books which depend on it (Jos-Kings),=20 distinguishes between =93the promise to the ancestors=94 = concerning the gift=20 of the land (Dt 7:12; 8:18) and the covenant with the generation = of Horeb=20 (5:2-3). This latter covenant is a promise of allegiance to the = Lord (2 K=20 23:1-3). Destined by God to be permanent (Dt 7:9,12), it demands = the=20 people's fidelity. The word ber=EEt often occurs with = specific=20 reference to the Decalogue rather than to the relationship between = the=20 Lord and Israel of which the Decalogue is a part: The Lord = =93declared to=20 you his ber=EEt, that is, the ten commandments, which he = charged you=20 to observe=94. 128

The declaration of Dt 5:3 merits particular = attention, for=20 it affirms the validity of the covenant for the present generation = (cf.=20 also 29:14). This verse gives a kind of key to interpreting the = whole=20 book. The temporal distance between the generations is abolished. = The=20 covenant at Sinai is made contemporaneous; it has been made = =93with us who=20 are all alive here today=94.

Promise to David. This ber=EEt is = along the same=20 lines as those made with Noah, and Abraham: a promise of God = without a=20 corresponding obligation for the king. David and his house from = now on=20 enjoy the favour of God who commits himself by oath to an = =93eternal=20 covenant=94. 129 The nature of this covenant is defined = by the=20 words of God: =93I will be a father to him and he shall be a son = to=20 me=94. 130

Being an unconditional promise, the covenant with = the house=20 of David cannot be broken (Ps 89:29-38). If David's successor = sins, God=20 will punish him like a father punishes his sons, but he will not = withdraw=20 his favour (2 S 7:14-15). The perspective is very different from = that of=20 the Sinai covenant, where the divine favour is conditional: it = requires=20 obedience to the covenant on Israel's part (Ex 19:5-6).

39. A new covenant in Jr 31:31-34. In = Jeremiah's=20 time, Israel's inability to keep the Sinai covenant was manifested = in a=20 tragic manner, resulting in the capture of Jerusalem and the = destruction=20 of the Temple. But God's fidelity towards his people is now = manifested in=20 the promise of a =93new covenant=94, which the Lord says =93will = not be like the=20 covenant that I made with their ancestors, when I took them by the = hand to=20 bring them out of Egypt; a covenant that they broke=94 (Jr 31:32). = Coming=20 after the breaking of the Sinai covenant, the new covenant makes = possible=20 a new beginning for the people of God. The prophetic message does = not=20 announce a change of law, but a new relationship with the Law of = God, an=20 interiorization. Instead of being written on =93tablets of = stone=94,=20 131 the Law will be written by God on their =93hearts=94 (Jr = 31:33),=20 which will guarantee a perfect obedience, willingly embraced, = instead of=20 the continual disobedience of the past. 132 The result = will be=20 a true reciprocal belonging, a personal relationship of each one = with the=20 Lord, which will make exhortation superfluous, something that had = been so=20 necessary in the past and yet so ineffectual as the prophets had = learned=20 from bitter experience. This stupendous innovation will be based = on the=20 Lord's gratuitous initiative: a pardon granted to the people's = faults.

The expression =93new covenant=94 is not = encountered elsewhere=20 in the Old Testament, but a prophetic message in the Book of = Ezechiel=20 develops Jr 31:31-34, by announcing to the house of Israel the = gift of a=20 =93new heart=94 and a =93new spirit=94, which will be the Spirit = of God and will=20 ensure submission to the Law of God. 133

In Second Temple Judaism, certain Israelites saw = the =93new=20 covenant=94 134 realised in their own community, as a = result of a=20 more exact observance of the Law of Moses, according to the = instructions=20 of a =93Teacher of Righteousness=94. This shows that the oracle of = the Book of=20 Jeremiah commanded attention at the time of Jesus and Paul. It = will not be=20 surprising then to see the expression =93new covenant=94 repeated = many times=20 in the New Testament.

b) In the New Testament

40. The theme of God's covenant with his people in = the=20 writings of the New Testament is placed in a context of = fulfilment, that=20 is, in a fundamental progressive continuity, which necessarily = involves=20 breaks at certain points.

Continuity concerns above all the covenant = relationship,=20 while the breaks concern the Old Testament institutions that were = supposed=20 to establish and maintain that relationship. In the New Testament, = the=20 covenant is established on a new foundation, the person and work = of Christ=20 Jesus; the covenant relationship is deepened and broadened, opened = to all=20 through Christian faith.

The Synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the = Apostles=20 make little mention of the covenant. In the infancy gospels, = the=20 canticle of Zechariah (Lk 1:72) proclaims the fulfilment of the=20 covenant-promise given by God to Abraham for his descendants. The = promise=20 envisages the establishment of a reciprocal relationship (Lk = 1:73-74)=20 between God and those descendents.

At the Last Supper, Jesus intervened decisively in = making=20 his blood =93the blood of the covenant=94 (Mt 26:28; Mk 14:24), = the foundation=20 of the =93new covenant=94 (Lk 22:20; 1 Co 11:25). The expression = =93blood of the=20 covenant=94 recalls the ratification of the Sinai covenant by = Moses (Ex=20 24:8), suggesting continuity with that covenant. But the words of = Jesus=20 also reveal a radical newness, for, whereas the Sinai covenant = included a=20 ritual of sprinkling with the blood of sacrificed animals, = Christ's=20 covenant is founded on the blood of a human being who transforms = his death=20 as a condemned man into a generous gift, and thereby makes this = rupture=20 into a covenant event.

By =93new covenant=94, Paul and Luke make this = newness explicit.=20 Yet, it is in continuity with another Old Testament text, the = prophetic=20 message of Jr 31:31-34, which announced that God would establish a = =93new=20 covenant=94. The words of Jesus over the cup proclaim that the = prophecy in=20 the Book of Jeremiah is fulfilled in his Passion. The disciples=20 participate in this fulfilment by their partaking of the =93supper = of the=20 Lord=94 (1 Co 11:20).

In the Acts of the Apostles (3:25), it is to the = covenant=20 promise that Peter draws attention. Peter addresses the Jews = (3:12), but=20 the text he quotes also concerns =93all the nations of the = earth=94 (Gn=20 22:18). The universal scope of the covenant is thereby = expressed.

The Book of Revelation presents a = characteristic=20 development: in the eschatological vision of the =93new = Jerusalem=94 the=20 covenant formula is employed and extended: =93they will be his = people and=20 God himself will be with them=94 (21:3).

41. The Letters of Paul discuss the issue = of the=20 covenant more than once. The =93new covenant=94 founded on the = blood of Christ=20 (1 Co 11:25) has a vertical dimension of union with the Lord = through the=20 =93communion with the blood of Christ=94 (1 Co 10:6) and a = horizontal=20 dimension of the union of all Christians in =93one body=94 (1 Co = 10:17).

The apostolic ministry is at the service of the = =93new=20 covenant=94 (2 Co 3:6), which is not =93of the letter=94, like = that of Sinai,=20 but =93of the Spirit=94, in accordance with the prophecies which = promised that=20 God would write his Law =93on their hearts=94 (Jr 31:33) and give = =93a new=20 spirit=94 that would be his Spirit. 135 Paul mentions = more than=20 once the covenant-law of Sinai, 136 he contrasts it = with the=20 covenant-promise of Abraham. The covenant-law is later and = provisional (Ga=20 3:19-25). The covenant-promise is prior and definitive (Ga = 3:16-18). From=20 the beginning it has a universal openness. 137 It finds = its=20 fulfilment in Christ. 138

Paul opposes the covenant-law of Sinai, on the one = hand, to=20 the extent that it competes with faith in Christ (=93a person is = justified=20 not by works of the Law, but through faith in Jesus Christ=94: Ga = 2:16; Rm=20 3:28), and, on the other, insofar as it is a legal system of a = particular=20 people, which should not be imposed on believers coming from the=20 =93nations=94. But Paul affirms the value of revelation of =93the = old=20 diathk=94, that is to say, the writings of the =93Old = Testament=94, which=20 are to be read in the light of Christ (2 Co 3:14-16).

For Paul, Jesus' establishment of =93the new = covenant in [his]=20 blood=94 (1 Co 11:25), does not imply any rupture of God's = covenant with his=20 people, but constitutes its fulfilment. He includes =93the = covenants=94 among=20 the privileges enjoyed by Israel, even if they do not believe in = Christ=20 (Rm 9:4). Israel continues to be in a covenant relationship and = remains=20 the people to whom the fulfilment of the covenant was promised, = because=20 their lack of faith cannot annul God's fidelity (Rm 11:29). Even = if some=20 Israelites have observed the Law as a means of establishing their = own=20 justice, the covenant-promise of God, who is rich in mercy (Rm = 11:26-27),=20 cannot be abrogated. Continuity is underlined by affirming that = Christ is=20 the end and the fulfilment to which the Law was leading the people = of God=20 (Ga 3:24). For many Jews, the veil with which Moses covered his = face=20 remains over the Old Testament (2 Co 3:13,15), thus preventing = them from=20 recognising Christ's revelation there. This becomes part of the = mysterious=20 plan of God's salvation, the final outcome of which is the = salvation of=20 =93all Israel=94 (Rm 11:26).

The =93covenants of promise=94 are explicitly = mentioned in Ep=20 2:12 to announce that access to them is now open to the = =93nations=94, Christ=20 having broken down =93the wall of separation=94, that is to say, = the Law which=20 blocked access to them for non-Jews (cf. Ep 2:14-15).

The Pauline Letters, then, manifest a twofold = conviction:=20 the insufficiency of the legal covenant of Sinai, on the one hand, = and on=20 the other, the validity of the covenant-promise. This latter finds = its=20 fulfilment in justification by faith in Christ, offered =93to the = Jew first,=20 but also to the Greek=94 (Rm 1:16). Their refusal of faith in = Christ places=20 the Jewish people in a situation of disobedience, but they are = still=20 =93loved=94 and promised God's mercy (cf. Rm 11:26-32).

42. The Letter to the Hebrews quotes in = extenso=20 the prophetic message of the =93new covenant=94 139 = and=20 proclaims its fulfilment in Christ =93mediator of the new = covenant=94.=20 140 It demonstrates the insufficiency of the cultic = institutions of=20 the =93first covenant=94; priesthood and sacrifices were incapable = of=20 overcoming the obstacle set by sins, and incapable of establishing = an=20 authentic mediation between God and his people. 141 = Those=20 institutions are now abrogated to make way for the sacrifice and=20 priesthood of Christ (Heb 7:18-19; 10:9). For Christ has overcome = all=20 obstacles by his redemptive obedience (Heb 5:8-9; 10:9-10), and = has opened=20 access to God for all believers (Heb 4:14-16; 10:19-22). In this = way, the=20 covenant announced and prefigured in the Old Testament is = fulfilled. It is=20 not simply a renewal of the Sinai covenant, but the establishment = of a=20 covenant that is truly new, founded on a new base, Christ's = personal=20 sacrificial offering (cf. 9: 14-15).

God's =93covenant=94 with David is not mentioned = explicitly in=20 the New Testament, but Peter's discourse in Acts links the = resurrection of=20 Jesus to the =93oath=94 sworn by God to David (Ac 2:20), an oath = called a=20 covenant with David in Ps 89:4 and 132:11. The Pauline discourse = in Ac=20 13:34 makes a similar connection by employing the expression of Is = 55:3=20 (=93the holy things guaranteed to David=94), which, in the Isaian = text,=20 defines an =93eternal covenant=94. The resurrection of Jesus, = =93son of=20 David=94, 142 is thus presented as the fulfilment of = the=20 covenant-promise given by God to David.

The conclusion which flows from all these = texts is=20 that the early Christians were conscious of being in profound = continuity=20 with the covenant plan manifested and realised by the God of = Israel in the=20 Old Testament. Israel continues to be in a covenant relationship = with God,=20 because the covenant-promise is definitive and cannot be = abolished. But=20 the early Christians were also conscious of living in a new phase = of that=20 plan, announced by the prophets and inaugurated by the blood of = Jesus,=20 =93blood of the covenant=94, because it was shed out of love (cf. = Rv=20 1:5(b)-6).

6. The Law

43. The Hebrew word t=F4r~h, translated = =93law=94, more=20 precisely means =93instruction=94, that is, both teaching and = directives. The=20 T=F4r~h is the highest source of wisdom. 143 The = Law=20 occupies a central place in the Jewish Scriptures and in their = religious=20 practice from biblical times to our own day. This is why, from = apostolic=20 times, the Church had to define itself in relation to the Law, = following=20 the example of Jesus himself, who gave it its proper significance = by=20 virtue of his authority as Son of God. 144

a) Law in the Old Testament

Israel's Law and cult are developed throughout the = Old=20 Testament. The different collections of laws 145 can = also serve=20 as guides for the chronology of the Pentateuch.

The gift of the Law. The Law is, first of = all, God's=20 gift to his people. The gift of the Law is the subject of a main = narrative=20 of composite origin, 146 and of complementary = narratives=20 147 among which, 2 K 22-23, has a special place because of = its=20 importance for the Deuteronomist. Ex 19-24 integrates the Law with = the=20 =93covenant=94 (ber=EEt) which the Lord concludes with = Israel, on the=20 mountain of God, during a theophany before the whole of Israel (Ex = 19-20),=20 and then to Moses himself 148 and to the seventy=20 representatives of Israel (Ex 24:9-11). These theophanies, = together with=20 the covenant, signify a special grace for the people, present and=20 future, 149 and the laws revealed at that moment in = time are=20 their lasting pledge.

But the narrative traditions also link the gift of = the Law=20 with the breaking of the covenant, that result from violation of = the=20 monotheism prescribed in the Decalogue. 150

=93The spirit of the Laws=94 according to the = T=F4r~h. The=20 laws contain moral precepts (ethical), juridical (legal), ritual = and=20 cultural (a rich assemblage of religious and profane customs). = They are of=20 a concrete nature, expressed sometimes as absolutes (e.g., the = Decalogue),=20 at other times as particular cases that concretise general = principles.=20 They then have the status of precedent and serve as analogies for=20 comparable situations, giving rise to the later development of=20 jurisprudence, called halakah, the oral law, later called = the=20 Mishna. Many laws have a symbolic meaning, in the sense = that they=20 illustrate concretely invisible values such as equity, social = harmony,=20 humanitarianism, etc. Not all laws are to be applied, some are = school=20 texts for the formation of future priests, judges and other = functionaries;=20 others reflect ideas inspired by the prophetic movement. = 151=20 They were applied in the towns and villages of the country = (Covenant=20 Code), then throughout the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, and later = in the=20 Jewish community dispersed throughout the world.

From a historical point of view, biblical laws are = the=20 result of a long history of religious, moral and juridical = traditions.=20 They contain many elements in common with the Ancient Near Eastern = civilisation. Seen from a literary and theological aspect, they = have their=20 source in the God of Israel who has revealed them either directly = (the=20 Decalogue according to Dt 5:22), or through Moses as intermediary = charged=20 with promulgating them. The Decalogue is really a collection = separate from=20 the other laws. Its first appearance 152 describes it = as the=20 totality of the conditions necessary to ensure freedom for = Israelite=20 families and to protect them from all kinds of oppression, = idolatry,=20 immorality and injustice. The exploitation experienced by Israel = in Egypt=20 must never be reproduced in Israel itself, in the exploitation of = the weak=20 by the strong.

On the other hand, the provisions of the Covenant = Code and=20 of Ex 34:14-26 embody a range of human and religious values, and = also=20 sketch a communitarian ideal of permanent value.

Since the Law is Israelite and Jewish, it is = therefore a=20 specific and determinate one, adopted to a particular historical = people.=20 But it has also an exemplary value for the whole of humanity (Dt = 4:6). For=20 this reason, it is an eschatological good promised to all the = nations=20 because it will serve as an instrument of peace (Is 2:1-4; Mi = 4:1-3). It=20 embodies a religious anthropology and an ensemble of values that = transcend=20 both the people and the historical conditions of which the = biblical laws=20 are in part the product.

T=F4r~h spirituality. As a manifestation of = the=20 all-wise divine will, the commandments become more and more = important in=20 the social and individual life of Israel. The Law becomes = omnipresent=20 there, especially from the time of the Exile (6th c.). Thus a form = of=20 spirituality arose that was marked by a profound veneration for = the=20 T=F4r~h. Its observance was regarded as a necessary = expression of the=20 =93fear of the Lord=94 and the perfect form of service of God. The = Psalms,=20 Sirach and Baruch are witnesses within the Scriptures themselves. = Ps 1,=20 19, 119 as T=F4r~h Psalms, enjoy a structural role in the=20 organisation of the Psalter. The T=F4r~h revealed to = mankind is also=20 the organising principle of the created universe. In observing = that Law,=20 believing Jews found therein their joy and their blessings, and=20 participated in the universal creative wisdom of God. This wisdom = revealed=20 to the Jewish people is superior to the wisdom of the nations (Dt = 4:6,8),=20 in particular to that of the Greeks (Ba 4:1-4).

b) Law in the New Testament

44. Matthew, Paul, the Letter to the Hebrews and = James=20 devote an explicit theological reflection to the significance of = the Law=20 after the coming of Jesus Christ.

The Gospel of Matthew reflects the = situation of the=20 Matthean ecclesial community after the destruction of Jerusalem = (70 A.D.).=20 Jesus affirms the permanent validity of the Law (Mt 5:18-19), but = in a new=20 interpretation, given with full authority (Mt 5:21-48). Jesus = =93fulfils=94=20 the Law (Mt 5:17) by radicalising it: at times by abolishing the = letter of=20 the Law (divorce, law of the talion), at other times, by giving a = more=20 demanding interpretation (murder, adultery, oaths), or a more = flexible one=20 (sabbath). Jesus insists on the double commandment of love of God = (Dt 6:5)=20 and of neighbour (Lv 19:18), on which =93depends all the Law and = the=20 Prophets=94 (Mt 22:34-40). Along with the Law, Jesus, the new = Moses, imparts=20 knowledge of God's will to mankind, to the Jews first of all, then = to the=20 nations as well (Mt 28:19-20).

The Pauline theology of the Law is rich, = but=20 imperfectly unified. This is due to the nature of the writings and = to a=20 process of thinking still being worked out in a theological = terrain not=20 yet explored in depth. Paul's reflection on the Law was sparked by = his own=20 personal spiritual experience and by his apostolic ministry. By = his=20 spiritual experience: after his encounter with Christ (1 Co 15:8), = Paul=20 realised that his zeal for the Law had led him astray to the point = of=20 leading him to =93persecute the Church of God=94 (15:9; Ph 3:6), = and that by=20 adhering to Christ, he was renouncing that zeal (Ph 3:7-9). = Through his=20 apostolic experience: since his ministry concerned non-Jews (Ga = 2:7; Rm=20 1:5), it posed a question: does the Christian faith demand of = non-Jews=20 submission to the Jewish Law and, in particular, to the legal = observances=20 that are the marks of Jewish identity (circumcision, dietary = regulations,=20 calendar)? A positive response would have been disastrous for = Paul's=20 apostolate. Wrestling with this problem, he was not content with = pastoral=20 considerations: he undertook a deeper doctrinal exploration.

Paul becomes acutely aware that the coming of = Christ demands=20 that he redefine the function of the Law. For Christ is the =93end = of the=20 Law=94 (Rm 10:4), at once the goal towards which it progressed and = the=20 terminal moment where its rule ends, because from now on, it is no = longer=20 the Law that will give life =97 it could not do so effectively = anyway=20 153 =97 it is faith in Christ that justifies and gives = life.=20 154 The Christ risen from the dead transmits his new life to = believers (Rm 6:9-11) and assures them of their salvation (Rm=20 10:9-10).

Henceforth, what is to be the role of the Law? = Paul=20 struggled to give an answer. He is aware of the positive function = of the=20 Law: It is one of Israel's privileges (Rm 9:4), =93the Law of = God=94 (Rm=20 7:22); it is summed up in the love of neighbour; 155 it = is=20 =93holy=94 and =93spiritual=94 (Rm 7:12,14). According to Ph 3:6, = the Law defines=20 a certain =93justice=94. On the other hand, the Law automatically = opens up the=20 possibility of a contrary choice: =93If it had not been for the = Law, I would=20 not have known sin. I would not have known what it is to covet if = the Law=20 had not said =91you shall not covet'=94 (Rm 7:7). Paul frequently = speaks of=20 this option inescapably inherent in the gift of the Law, for = example, when=20 he says that in the concrete human condition (=93the flesh=94) = =93sin=94 prevents=20 mankind from adhering to the Law (Rm 7:23-25), or that =93the = letter=94 of the=20 Law, deprived of the Spirit that enables one to fulfil the Law, = ends up by=20 bringing death (2 Co 3:6-7).

Contrasting =93the letter=94 and =93the spirit=94, = the apostle sets=20 up a dichotomy as he did in the case of Adam and Christ; he places = what=20 Adam (that is, the human being deprived of grace) is capable of = doing=20 against what Christ (that is, grace) brings about. Indeed, for = pious Jews,=20 the Law was part of God's plan where both the promises and faith = also had=20 their place, but Paul wants to speak about what the Law can do by = itself,=20 as =93letter=94, that is, by abstracting from providence which = always=20 accompanies the human being, unless he wishes to establish his own = justice. 156

If, according to 1 Co 15:56, =93the sting of death = is sin and=20 the power of sin is the Law=94, it follows that the Law, insofar = as it is=20 letter, kills, albeit indirectly. Consequently, the ministry of = Moses=20 could be called a ministry of death (2 Co 3:7), of condemnation = (3:9).=20 Nevertheless, this ministry was surrounded by a glory (splendour = coming=20 from God) so that Israelites could not even look on the face of = Moses=20 (3:7). This glory loses its lustre by the very fact that a = superior glory=20 (3:10) now exists, that of the =93ministry of the Spirit=94 = (3:8).

45. The Letter to the Galatians declares that = =93all who rely=20 on the works of the Law are under a curse=94, for the Law curses = =93everyone=20 who does not observe and obey all the things written in the book = of the=20 Law=94. 157 The Law is opposed here to the way of = faith, proposed=20 elsewhere by the Scriptures; 158 it indicates the way = of works,=20 leaving us to our own resources (3:12). Not that the apostle is = opposed to=20 =93works=94. He is only against the human pretension of saving = oneself through=20 the =93works of the Law=94. He is not against works of faith =97 = which,=20 elsewhere, often coincide with the Law's content =97 works made = possible by=20 a life-giving union with Christ. On the contrary, he declares that = =93what=20 matters=94 is =93faith that works through love=94. = 159

Paul is aware that the coming of Christ has led to = a change=20 of regime. Christians no longer live under the Law, but by faith = in Christ=20 (Ga 3:24-26; 4:3-7), which is the regime of grace (Rm = 6:14-15).

As regards the central contents of the Law (the = Decalogue=20 and that which is in accordance with its spirit), Ga 5:18-23 = affirms first=20 of all: =93If you are led by the Spirit, you are not subject to = the Law=94=20 (5:18). Having no need of the Law, a person will spontaneously = abstain=20 from =93works of the flesh=94 (5:19-21) and will produce =93the = fruit of the=20 Spirit=94 (5:22). Paul adds that the Law is not contrary to this = (5:23),=20 because believers will fulfil all that the Law demands, and will = also=20 avoid what the Law prohibits. According to Rm 8:1-4, =93the law of = the=20 Spirit of life in Christ Jesus=94 has freed believers from the = powerlessness=20 of the Mosaic Law in such a way that =93the just precepts of the = Law may be=20 fulfilled=94. One of the reasons for redemption was precisely to = obtain this=20 fulfilment of the Law!

In the Letter to the Hebrews, the Law = appears as an=20 institution that was useful in its time and place. 160 = But true=20 mediation between the sinful people and God is not in its power = (7:19;=20 10:1). Only the mediation of Christ is efficacious (9:11-14). = Christ is a=20 High Priest of a new kind (7:11,15). Because of the connection = between Law=20 and priesthood, =94the change of priesthood involves a change of = law=94=20 (7:12). In saying this, the author echoes Paul's teaching = according to=20 which Christians are no longer under the Law's regime, but under = that of=20 faith in Christ and of grace. For a relationship with God, the = author=20 insists, is not through the observance of the Law, but through = =93faith=94,=20 =93hope=94 and =93love=94 (10:22,23,24).

For James, as for the Christian community = at large,=20 the moral demands of the Law continue to serve as a guide (2:11), = but as=20 interpreted by the Lord. The =93royal law=94 (2:8), that of the = =93kingdom=94=20 (2:5), is the precept of love of neighbour. 161 This is = =93the=20 perfect law of liberty=94 (1:25; 2:12-13), which is concerned with = working=20 through a faith that is active (2:14-26).

This last example shows the variety of positions = in relation=20 to the Law expressed in the New Testament, and their fundamental=20 agreement. James does not announce, like Paul and the Letter to = the=20 Hebrews, the end of the Law's reign, but he agrees with Matthew, = Mark,=20 Luke and Paul in underlining the priority not only of the = Decalogue but=20 also the precept of love of neighbour (Lv 19:18) which leads to = the=20 perfect observance of the Decalogue and to do still better. The = New=20 Testament then depends on the Old. It is read in the light of = Christ, who=20 has confirmed the precept of love and has given it a new = dimension: =93Love=20 one another as I have loved you=94 (Jn 13:34; 15:12), that is, to = the=20 sacrifice of one's life. The Law is thereby more than = fulfilled.

7.=20 Prayer and Cult, Jerusalem and Temple

a) In the Old Testament

46. In the Old Testament, prayer and cult occupy = an=20 important place because these activities are privileged moments of = the=20 personal and communal relationship of the Israelites with God who = has=20 chosen and called them to live within his Covenant.

Prayer and cult in the Pentateuch. The = narratives=20 show typical situations of prayer, especially in Gn 12-50. Cries = of=20 distress (32:10-13), requests for favour (24:12-14), acts of = thanksgiving=20 (24:48), as well as vows (28:20-22) and consultations of the Lord = about=20 the future (25:22-23) are to be found. During the Exodus, Moses=20 intercedes 162 and the people are saved from = extermination=20 (32:10,14).

As a primary source for the knowledge of the = institutions,=20 the Pentateuch assembles aetiologies that explain the origin of = places,=20 times and sacred institutions. Places like Shechem, Bethel, = Mamre,=20 Beersheeba. 163 Sacred times like the sabbath,=20 sabbatical year, jubilee year, feast days are fixed, including the = Day of=20 Atonement. 164

The cult is a gift from the Lord. Many texts in = the Old=20 Testament insist on this perspective. The revelation of God's name = is=20 purely gratuitous (Ex 3:14-15). It is the Lord who makes possible = the=20 celebration of sacrifices, because it is he who makes available = the blood=20 of animals for this purpose (Lv 17:11). Before becoming the = people's=20 offering to God, the first-fruits and the tithes are God's gift to = the=20 people (Dt 26:9-10). It is God who institutes priests and Levites = and=20 designs the sacred utensils (Ex 25-30).

The collections of the Law (cf. above II. B. 6, = no. 43)=20 contain numerous liturgical directives and diverse explanations of = the=20 purpose of the cultic order. The fundamental distinctions between = pure and=20 impure, on the one hand, and holy and profane, on the other, serve = to=20 organise space and time, even to the details of daily life, and=20 consequently social and individual living is regulated. Impurity = places=20 the affected persons and things outside the socio-cultic space, = while what=20 is pure is completely integrated with it. Ritual activity includes = multiple purifications to re-integrate the impure into the = community.=20 165 Inside the circle of purity, another limit separates the = profane=20 (which is pure) from the holy (which is pure and also reserved to = God).=20 The holy (or the sacred) is the domain of God. The liturgy of the=20 =93Priestly=94(P) source also distinguishes =93holy=94 from = =93Holy of Holies=94. Holy=20 places are accessible to priests and Levites, but not to the = people=20 (=93laity=94). Sacred space is always set apart. = 166

Sacred time restricts profane employment = (prohibition of=20 work, the sabbath day, sowing and reaping during the sabbatical = year). It=20 corresponds to the return of the created order to its original = state=20 before it was delivered to mankind. 167

Space, persons and sacred things must be made holy = (consecrated). Consecration removes what is incompatible with God, = impurity and sin, which are opposed to the Lord. The cult includes = multiple rites of pardon (expiations) to restore holiness, = 168=20 which implies that God is near. 169 The people are = consecrated=20 and must be holy (Lv 11:44-45). The purpose of the cult is that = the people=20 be made holy =97 through expiation, purification and consecration = =97 and be=20 at the service of God.

The cult is a vast symbolism of grace, an = expression of=20 God's =93condescension=94 (in the patristic sense of beneficent = adaptation)=20 towards human beings, since he established it for pardon, = purification,=20 sanctification and preparation for direct contact with his = presence=20 (kab=F4d, glory).

47. Prayer and cult in the Prophets. The = book of=20 Jeremiah contributes a lot to the appreciation of prayer. It = contains=20 =93confessions=94, dialogues with God, in which the prophet, both = as an=20 individual and as a representative of his people, expresses a = deep,=20 interior crisis about election and the realisation of God's = plan.=20 170 Many prophetic books include psalms and canticles = 171=20 as well as fragments of doxologies. 172

Among the pre-exilic prophets, we notice one = prominent=20 feature =97 repeated condemnation of liturgical sacrifices = 173=20 and even of prayer itself. 174 The rejection seems = radical, but=20 these invectives are not to be interpreted as an abrogation of the = cult,=20 or a denial of their divine origin. Their aim is to denounce the=20 contradiction between the conduct of the participants and the = holiness of=20 God which they claim to be celebrating.

Prayer and cult in the other Writings. = Three poetical=20 books are of immense importance for the spirituality of prayer. = First=20 Job: with a sincerity equal to the art, the protagonist = expresses=20 all the states of his soul directly to God. 175 Then = there is=20 Lamentations, where prayer and complaint are mingled.=20 176 And, of course, the Psalms, that constitute the = very=20 heart of the Old Testament. In fact, the impression given is if = the Hebrew=20 Bible has retained so few developments on prayer, it is to = concentrate all=20 the beams of light on one particular collection. The Psalter is = the one=20 irreplaceable key to reading not only the whole life of the = Israelite=20 people, but the whole of the Hebrew Bible itself. Elsewhere, the = Writings=20 contain little more than vague general principles 177 = and some=20 samples of more or less elaborated hymns and prayers. = 178

An attempt can be made to classify the Psalms = around four=20 central axes that retain a universal value in all times and = cultures.

Most of the Psalms revolve around the axis of = liberation.=20 The dramatic sequence appears to be stereotyped, whether = rooted in=20 personal or collective experiences. The experience of the need for = salvation reflected in biblical prayer covers a wide range of = situations.=20 Other prayers revolve around the axis of wonder. They = foster a=20 sense of wonder, contemplation and praise. The axis of = instruction=20 gathers up three types of meditative prayer: syntheses of = sacred=20 history, instruction for personal and communal moral choices = (frequently=20 including prophetic words and messages), description of the = conditions=20 necessary for participation in the cult. Finally, some prayers = revolve=20 around the axis of popular feasts. There are four in = particular:=20 harvests, marriages, pilgrimages, and political events.

48. Privileged places of prayer include = sacred=20 spaces, sanctuaries, especially the Jerusalem Temple. But prayer = is always=20 possible in the privacy of one's home. Sacred times, fixed = by the=20 calendar, mark the times for prayer, even personal prayer, as well = as the=20 ritual hours of sacrifice, especially morning and evening. We = notice=20 different postures for prayer, standing, with raised hands, = kneeling, fully prostrate, sitting or lying down.

If one can distinguish between the permanent and = the=20 dispensable elements in thought and language, the treasury of = Israel's=20 prayer can serve to express, at a profound level, the prayer of = human=20 beings in all times and places. That is to say the permanent = value=20 of those texts. Certain Psalms, however, express a type of = prayer that=20 will gradually become obsolete, in particular, the curses and = imprecations=20 hurled at enemies.

In appropriating the prayers of the Old Testament = just as=20 they are, Christians re-read them in the light of the paschal = mystery,=20 which at the same time gives them an extra dimension.

The Jerusalem Temple. Built by Solomon (c. = 950 B.C.),=20 this edifice of stone, dominating the hill of Zion, has enjoyed a = central=20 place in Israelite religion. Aided by the religious reform of = Josiah=20 (640-609), 179 the deuteronomic law prescribed one = sanctuary in=20 the land for all the people (Dt 12:2-7). The Jerusalem sanctuary = was=20 designated as =93the place chosen by the lordyour God as a = dwelling for his=20 name=94 (12:11,21, etc.). Several etiological narratives explain = this=20 choice. 180 The priestly theology (P), for its part, = designated=20 this presence by the word =93glory=94 (kab=F4d), evoking = the=20 manifestation of God, at one and the same time both fascinating = and=20 awesome, especially in the Holy of Holies, above the ark of the = covenant=20 covered by the propitiatory: 181 the nearest contact = with God=20 is based on pardon and grace. That is why the destruction of the = Temple=20 (587) was the equivalent of total desolation, 182 and = took on=20 the proportions of a national catastrophe. The eagerness to = rebuild it at=20 the end of the Exile (Hg 1-2) and to celebrate there a worthy cult = (Ml=20 1-3), became the criterion of the fear of God. The Temple radiated = blessing to the ends of the earth (Ps 65). Hence the importance of = pilgrimage, as a symbol of unity (Ps 122). In the work of the = Chronicler,=20 the Temple is clearly at the centre of all religious and national=20 life.

The Temple is both functional and symbolic = space. It=20 serves as the place of the cult, especially sacrifice, prayer, = teaching,=20 healing and royal enthronement. As in all religions, the material = edifice=20 here below evokes the mystery of the divine dwelling in heaven = above (1 K=20 8:30). Because of the special presence of the living God, the = Temple=20 becomes the origin par excellence of life (communal birth, rebirth = after=20 sin), and of knowledge (word of God, revelation, wisdom). It plays = the=20 role of axis and centre of the world. Nevertheless, a critical=20 relativisation of the symbolism of the holy place = can be=20 observed. It can never guarantee and =93contain=94 the divine = presence.=20 183 Parallel to the criticism of a hypocritical and = formalist cult,=20 the prophets exposed the conceit of placing unconditional = confidence in=20 the holy place (Jr 7:1-15). A symbolic vision solemnly presents = =93the glory=20 of the Lord=94 departing from the holy place. 184 But = this glory=20 will return to the Temple (Ezk 43:1-9), to an ideal, restored one = (40-42),=20 a source of fecundity, healing and salvation (47:1-12). Before = this=20 return, God promises the exiles that he himself will be =93a = sanctuary=94=20 (11:16) for them.

Jerusalem. From a theological perspective, = the=20 history of the city has its origin in a divine choice (1 K 8:16). = David=20 conquered Jerusalem, an ancient Canaanite city (2 S 5:6-12). He=20 transferred the ark of the covenant there (2 S 6-7). Solomon built = the=20 Temple there (1 K 6). Thus the city ranked among the older sacred = places=20 in Judah and Israel where people went on pilgrimage. In the war of = Sennacherib against Hezechiah in 701 (2 K 18:13), Jerusalem alone = among=20 the towns of Judah is spared, although the kingdom of Israel was=20 completely conquered by the Assyrians in 722. The deliverance of = Jerusalem=20 had been prophetically announced as an act of divine favour (2 K=20 19:20-34).

Jerusalem is usually designated as =93the city = chosen by the=20 Lord=94, 185 =93established=94 by him (Is 14:32), = =93city of God=94 (Ps=20 87:3), =93holy city=94 (Is 48:2), because the Lord is =93in its = midst=94 (Zp=20 3:17). She is promised a glorious future: assurance of divine = presence=20 =93for ever=94 and =93from age to age=94 (Jl 4:16-21), guaranteed = protection (Is=20 31:4-5) as well as happiness and prosperity. Certain texts even = attribute=20 an ideal perfection to this city of cities. Above and beyond its=20 geographical location, she becomes the pole of attraction and the = axis of=20 the world. 186

Nevertheless, the greatness of Jerusalem will not = prevent=20 evil descending on the city. Numerous prophetic messages (2 K = 23:27),=20 symbolic actions (Ezk 4-5) and visions (8-11) announce the = rejection and=20 the destruction of the city chosen by God.

Later on, a restored Jerusalem becomes one of the = great=20 symbols of eschatological salvation: a city illumined by the = Lord,=20 187 given a =93new name=94 and which becomes again the = =93espoused=94 of=20 God. 188 Jerusalem will become paradise regained with = the=20 coming of the =93new heavens=94 and the =93new earth=94, = 189=20 essentially a cultic place (Ezk 40-48), the centre of the = recreated world=20 (Zc 14:16-17). =93All the nations=94 will assemble there to seek = arbitration=20 from the Lord and the divine teaching which will put an end to = war.=20 190

b) In the New Testament, prayer and cult, = Temple=20 and Jerusalem

49. Prayer and cult. In contrast to the Old = Testament, the New Testament contains no detailed legislation = concerning=20 the establishment of cultic institutions and rituals =97 it = briefly=20 prescribes baptism and the celebration of the Eucharist = 191 =97=20 but it puts a strong emphasis on prayer.

The Gospels frequently show Jesus at prayer. = His=20 filial love for God, his Father, urged him to give a lot of time = to this=20 activity. He rises early to pray, even after a late night due to = the=20 influx of the sick people with their maladies (Mk 1:32,35). = Sometimes he=20 spends the whole night in prayer (Lk 6:12). He isolates himself = =93in desert=20 places=94 to pray better (Lk 5:16), or ascends =93the mountain=94 = (Mt 14:23).=20 Luke shows how intense prayer prepares for or accompanies the more = decisive moments of Jesus' ministry: his baptism (Lk 3:21), the = choice of=20 the Twelve (6:12), the question of his identity posed to the = Twelve=20 (9:18), his transfiguration (9:28), his passion (22:41-45).

The Gospels only rarely report the content of = Jesus' prayer.=20 The little they do say shows that his prayer expressed the = intimacy with=20 his Father, whom he calls =93Abba=94 (Mk 14:36), a term of = familiarity not=20 found in the Judaism of the time, to invoke God. Jesus' prayer is = often=20 one of thanksgiving, following the Jewish ber~k~h. = 192=20 During the Last Supper, he =93chants the Psalms=94 prescribed by = the ritual of=20 the great feast. 193 According to the four Gospels, he = quotes=20 eleven distinct Psalms.

The Son gratefully recognises that everything = comes from his=20 Father's love (Jn 3:35). At the end of the Last Supper Discourse, = John=20 puts on the lips of Jesus a long prayer of petition for himself, = and for=20 his disciples, present and future, thereby revealing how his = passion is to=20 be understood (Jn 17). The Synoptics record the suppliant prayer = of Jesus=20 at the moment of mortal sadness in Gethsemane (Mt 26:36-44 and = par.), a=20 prayer accompanied by a gracious compliance with the Father's will = (26:39,42). On the cross, he makes his own the doleful cry of Ps=20 22:2, 194 or following Luke, the prayer of abandonment = of Ps=20 31:6 (Lk 23:46).

Alongside the prayer of Jesus, the Gospels = report=20 many demands and supplications made to Jesus, to which he=20 generously responds, underlining at the same time the efficacy of=20 faith. 195 Jesus gave instructions on prayer = 196 and=20 through parables encouraged perseverance in prayer. 197 = He=20 insisted on the necessity of prayer in times of trial =93so as not = to come=20 into temptation=94 (Mt 26:41 and par.).

The example of Jesus gave rise to the disciples' = wish to=20 imitate him: =93Lord, teach us to pray=94 (Lk 11,1). He responds = by teaching=20 them the Our Father. The formulas of the Our = Father=20 198 resemble Jewish prayer (=93The Eighteen = Benedictions=94), but with=20 an unparalleled sobriety. In a few words, the Our Father = offers a=20 complete programme of filial prayer: adoration (first petition), = yearning=20 for eschatological salvation (second petition), compliance with = the divine=20 will (third petition), prayer for daily necessities in confident = abandon,=20 day after day, to God's providence (fourth petition), request for = pardon,=20 conditioned by a willingness to pardon (fifth petition), prayer = for=20 deliverance from temptation and mastery of Evil (sixth and seventh = petitions).

Paul, for his part, gives examples of thanksgiving = prayer,=20 expressed in various forms, at the beginning of his letters. He = invites=20 Christians to =93give thanks in all circumstances=94 and to = =93pray without=20 ceasing=94 (1 Th 5:17).

50. The Acts frequently show Christians at = prayer,=20 either individually (Ac 9:40; 10:9, etc.) or together (4:24-30; = 12:12,=20 etc.), in the Temple (2:46; 3:1), in houses (2:46), and even in = prison=20 (16:25). Sometimes prayer is accompanied by fasting (13:3; 14:23). = In the=20 New Testament, prayer formulas are usually hymnic: the = Magnificat=20 (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Nunc = dimittis=20 (2:29-32) and numerous passages in the Book of Revelation. = They are=20 moulded in biblical language. In the Pauline corpus, hymns are=20 Christological, 199 reflecting the Church's liturgy. = Like the=20 prayer of Jesus, Christian prayer utilises the Jewish ber~k~h=20 (=93Blessed be God...=94). 200 In a Hellenistic = milieu it was=20 more charismatic (1 Co 14:2,16-18). Prayer is the work of the = Spirit of=20 God. 201 Certain things are possible only through = prayer (Mk=20 9:29).

The New Testament reveals traits of the early = Church's=20 liturgical prayer. The =93Lord's Supper=94 (1 Co 11:20) = occupies a=20 prominent place in the traditions. 202 Its form = resembles the=20 liturgy of Jewish festal meals: ber~k~h over the bread at = the=20 beginning, over the wine at the end. From the tradition underlying = 1 Co=20 11:23-25 and the Synoptic narratives, the two blessings were = brought=20 closer in such a way that the meal was placed, not in between, but = either=20 before or after. This rite is a memorial of Christ's passion (1 Co = 11:24-25); it creates fellowship (koin(o-)nia: 1 Co 10:16) = between=20 the risen Christ and his disciples. Baptism, a profession of = faith,=20 203 offers pardon for sin, unites with Christ's paschal = mystery (Rm=20 6:3-5) and gives entry into the community of believers (1 Co = 12:13).

The liturgical calendar remained that of the Jews = (except=20 for the Pauline Christian communities that came from paganism: Ga = 4:10;=20 Col 2:16), but the sabbath began to be replaced by the first day = of the=20 week (Ac 20:7; 1 Co 16:2) called the =93day of the Lord=94 or the = =93Lord's day=94=20 (Rv 1:10), that is, the day of the risen Lord. Christians = continued, at=20 first, to frequent the Temple functions (Ac 3:1), which provided = the point=20 of departure for the Christian liturgy of the hours.

The Letter to the Hebrews recognised a certain = ritual=20 validity for the ancient sacrificial cult (Heb 9:13), as a = prefiguration=20 of Christ's offering (9:18-23). But taking up the criticism = expressed in=20 the Prophets and Psalms, 204 it denies all efficacy to = animal=20 sacrifices for the purification of conscience and for the = establishment of=20 a deep relationship with God. 205 The only fully = efficacious=20 sacrifice is the personal and existential offering of Christ = making him=20 the perfect High Priest, =93mediator of the new covenant=94. = 206 In=20 virtue of this offering, Christians can approach God (Heb = 10:19-22)=20 through grace and by living a life of self-giving (13:15-16). The = apostle=20 Paul already spoke in this manner (Rm 12:1-2).

51. The Jerusalem Temple. During the = lifetimes of=20 Jesus and Paul the Temple still existed as a material and = liturgical=20 reality. Like all Jews, Jesus went there on pilgrimage; he taught=20 there. 207 He performed a prophetic act there by = expelling the=20 merchants (Mt 21:12-13 and par.)

The edifice retained its symbolic role as the = privileged=20 divine abode, which represented on earth the dwelling place of God = in=20 heaven. In Mt 21:3 Jesus quotes a prophetic word where God himself = calls=20 it =93my house=94 (Is 56:7); in Jn 2:16 Jesus calls it =93my = Father's house=94.=20 But some texts relativise this symbolism and pave the way for = transcending=20 it. 208 As Jeremiah had done, Jesus predicted the = destruction=20 of the Temple (Mt 24:2 and par.) and announced, instead, its = replacement=20 by a new sanctuary, to be built in three days. 209 = After his=20 resurrection, Jesus' disciples will understand that the new Temple = was his=20 risen body (Jn 2:22). Paul tells believers that they are members = of this=20 body (1 Co 12:27) and the =93temple of God=94 (3:16-17) or =93of = the Spirit=94=20 (6:19). The First Letter of Peter tells them that united with = Christ, the=20 =93living stone=94, they form together a =93spiritual house=94 (1 = P 2:4-5).

The Book of Revelation frequently speaks of a=20 sanctuary. 210 With the exception of Rv 11:1-2, it is = always in=20 reference to =93God's heavenly sanctuary=94 (11:19), from which = divine=20 intervention on earth emanates. In the final vision it is said of = =93the=20 holy city, Jerusalem, which descends from heaven=94 (21:10), that = it has no=20 sanctuary, =93for its Temple is the Lord God Almighty and the = Lamb=94 (21:22).=20 This is the final fulfilment of the Temple theme.

Jerusalem. The New Testament fully = recognises the=20 importance of Jerusalem in God's plan. Jesus forbids = swearing by=20 Jerusalem =93because it is the city of the Great King=94 (Mt = 5:35). He=20 resolutely goes up there; it is there that he must fulfil his=20 mission. 211 But he says that the city =93did not know = the time=20 of its visitation=94 and he tearfully foresees that this blindness = will=20 bring about its ruin, 212 as had already happened in = Jeremiah's=20 time.

In the meantime, Jerusalem continues to play an = important=20 role. In the Lukan theology, it is at the centre of salvation = history; it=20 is there that Christ dies and is raised. Everything converges on = this=20 centre: the Gospel begins (Lk 1:5-25) and ends (24:52-52) there. = Then=20 everything begins from there: it is from there that, after the = coming of=20 the Holy Spirit, the good news of salvation is spread to the four = corners=20 of the inhabited world (Ac 8-28). As regards Paul, although his = apostolate=20 did not begin from Jerusalem (Ga 1:17), he considers communion = with the=20 Jerusalem Church to be indispensable (2:1-2). Elsewhere, he = declares that=20 the mother of Christians is =93the Jerusalem above=94 (4:26). The = city becomes=20 the symbol of eschatological fulfilment both in future (Rv 21:2-3, = 9-11)=20 and in present dimension (Heb 12:22).

Thus, aided by a symbolic intensification already = well=20 attested in the Old Testament itself, the Church will always = recognise the=20 bonds that intimately unite it to the history of Jerusalem and its = Temple,=20 as well as to the prayer and cult of the Jewish people.

8.=20 Divine Reproaches and Condemnations

a) In the Old Testament

52. The election of Israel and the covenant, as we = have=20 seen, resulted in demands for faithfulness and holiness. How did = the=20 chosen people respond to these demands? To this, the Old Testament = frequently gives an answer that expresses the disappointment of = Israel's=20 God, a response full of reproaches and even condemnations.

The narrative writings give a long list of=20 infidelities and resistance to the voice of God, a list beginning = with the=20 departure from Egypt. In times of real crisis, which ought to have = been=20 occasions for proving their trust in God, the Israelites = =93murmur=94,=20 213 adopting an attitude of challenge to God's plan and of=20 opposition to Moses, to the point of wanting to =93stone=94 him = (Ex 17:4). No=20 sooner was the Sinai covenant concluded (Ex 24) than the people = let=20 themselves lapse into the gravest infidelity, idolatry (Ex = 32:4-6).=20 214 Faced with this disloyalty, the Lord declares: =93I have = seen this=20 people, how stiff-necked they are=94 (Ex 32:9). This pejorative = description=20 of them is frequently repeated later on 215 and becomes = a sort=20 of natural epithet to describe the character of Israel. Another = episode is=20 no less important: having arrived at the borders of Canaan and = been=20 invited to enter the land which the Lord is giving them, the = people refuse=20 to enter, on the grounds that it was too dangerous. 216 = The=20 Lord then reproaches his people for their lack of faith (Nu 14:11) = and=20 condemns them to wander for forty years in the desert, where all = the=20 adults will die (14:29,34), with the exception of those who = unreservedly=20 followed the Lord.

The Old Testament frequently mentions that = Israel's=20 disobedience began =93from the day their ancestors came out of = Egypt=94, and=20 adds that it has continued =93even to this day=94. = 217

The Deuteronomic History which comprises the books = of=20 Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings, gives an unqualified = negative=20 judgement on the history of Israel and Judah between the time of = Joshua=20 and the Babylonian Exile. The people and their kings, with few = exceptions,=20 have generally succumbed to the temptation of foreign gods in the=20 religious sphere and to social injustice and every kind of = disorder=20 forbidden in the Decalogue. That is why this history ended finally = on a=20 negative note, the visible consequences of which were the loss of = the=20 promised land with the destruction of the two kingdoms and = Jerusalem,=20 including the Temple, in 587.

The prophetic writings contain reproaches that are = particularly vehement. One of the principal tasks of the prophets = was=20 precisely to =93cry out with full voice without holding back=94 to = =93announce=20 to my people their rebellion=94. 218 Among the eighth = century=20 prophets, Amos denounces the sins of Israel, with primary = emphasis=20 on the lack of social justice. 219 For Hosea, = idolatry=20 is the basic sin, but reproaches extend to many others: = =93swearing, lying,=20 and murder, and stealing, and adultery break out, bloodshed = follows=20 bloodshed=94 (Ho 4:2). For Isaiah, God has done all he = could for his=20 vineyard, but it has not produced fruit (Is 5:1-7). Like Amos = before him=20 (4:4), Isaiah rejects the cult of those who show no concern for = justice=20 (Is 1:11-17). Micah declares that he is =93full of strength = to=20 declare to Jacob his crimes=94 (Mi 3:8).

These crimes led to the greatest threats the = prophets could=20 hurl against Israel and Judah: the Lord will reject his = people.=20 220 This will lead to the destruction of Jerusalem and its = Temple,=20 where his beneficent and protecting presence dwells. = 221

The last decades of Judah and the beginning of the = Exile=20 were accompanied by the preaching of many prophets. Like Hosea, = Jeremiah=20 enumerates sins 222 and shows that abandoning the = lordis the=20 root of all evil (2:13); he brands idolatry as adultery and=20 prostitution. 223 Ezechiel does the same in lengthy = chapters=20 (Ezk 16; 23) and calls the Israelites a =93brood of rebels=94 = (2:5,6,7,8),=20 =93stubborn and hard-hearted=94 (2:4;3:7). The force of the = prophetic=20 accusations is astonishing. What is surprising is that Israel gave = them=20 such a large place in its Scriptures, which shows a sincerity and = humility=20 that is exemplary.

During the Exile and after, the Judean and Jewish = community=20 acknowledged their sins through liturgies and prayers in a = national=20 confession. 224

When they contemplated their past, the people of = the Sinai=20 covenant could only pass a severe judgement on themselves: their = history=20 had been a long succession of infidelities. The punishments were = deserved.=20 The covenant had been broken. But the Lord had never resigned = himself to=20 accepting this rupture. 225 He had always offered the = grace of=20 conversion and resumption of relations, in a more intimate and = stable=20 form. 226

b) In the New Testament

53. John the Baptist follows the ancient = prophets in=20 his call for repentance to the =93brood of vipers=94 (Mt 3:7; Lk = 3:7) that=20 flocked to his preaching. This preaching was based on the = conviction that=20 a divine intervention was about to take place. The judgement was = imminent:=20 =93Already the axe is at the root of the tree=94 (Mt 3:10; Lk = 3:9). Conversion=20 was then a matter of urgency.

Like that of John, the preaching of Jesus = is a call=20 to conversion, made urgent by the proximity of the reign of God = (Mt 4:17);=20 it is at the same time the announcement of =93the good news=94, of = a=20 favourable intervention of God (Mk 1:14-15). Shocked at their = refusal to=20 believe, Jesus had recourse to invective, like the prophets of = old. He=20 castigates this =93evil and adulterous generation=94 (Mt 12:39), = =93unbelieving=20 and perverted generation=94 (17:17), and announces a judgement = more severe=20 than that which befell Sodom (11:24; cf. Is 1:10).

The rejection of Jesus by the leaders of his = people, who=20 carried with them the population of Jerusalem, increased their = guilt to=20 its extreme degree. The divine sanction will be the same as in = Jeremiah's=20 time: the capture of Jerusalem and the destruction of the = Temple.=20 227 But =97 as in Jeremiah's time =96 God is not satisfied = merely to=20 punish, he also offers pardon. To the Jews of Jerusalem who have = =93killed=20 the Prince of Life=94 (Ac 3:15), Peter preaches repentance and = promises=20 forgiveness of sins (3:19). Less severe than the ancient prophets, = he=20 regards their sin as one committed =93in ignorance=94. = 228=20 Thousands respond to his appeal. 229

In the Apostolic Letters, although = exhortations and=20 warnings are very frequent, and accompanied at times by threats of = condemnation for sin, 230 reproaches and condemnations = as such=20 are relatively rare, though not lacking in severity. = 231

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul draws up a = forceful=20 indictment against =93those who by their wickedness suppress the = truth=94 (Rm=20 1:18). The basic fault of the pagans is their failure to recognise = God=20 (1:21); their punishment consists of being handed over by God into = the=20 grip of immorality. 232 The Jews are reproached for = their=20 inconsistency: their conduct contrasts with their knowledge of the = Law (Rm=20 2:17-24).

Christians themselves are not shielded from = reproaches. The=20 Letter to the Galatians contains some very serious ones. The = Galatians are=20 accused of turning away from God to follow =93another gospel=94, = which is a=20 false one (Ga 1:6); they have =93cut themselves off from = Christ=94, they have=20 =93fallen away from grace=94 (5:4). But Paul hopes for their = return (5:10).=20 The Corinthians are reproached for the discord stirred up in the = community=20 by the cult of certain personalities, 233 as well as = for a=20 serious lapse in charity when they celebrate the =93Supper of the = Lord=94 (1=20 Co 11:17-22). =93For this reason=94, Paul says, =93many of you are = weak and ill,=20 and some of you have died=94 (11:30). In addition, the community = is severely=20 reprimanded because it has tolerated a case of scandalous = misconduct. The=20 offender must be excommunicated, =93handed over to Satan=94. = 234=20 Paul quotes the precept of Dt 17:7: =93Drive out the wicked person = from=20 among you=94 (1 Co 5:13). The Pastoral Letters take issue with = =93self-styled=20 teachers of the Law=94 who have strayed from true charity and = sincere faith=20 (1 Tm 1:5-7); their names are given as well as the sanctions = imposed on=20 them. 235

The letters sent =93to the seven churches=94 (Rv = 1:11) by the=20 author of the Book of Revelation clearly show the diversity of = situations=20 in which the Christian communities lived at the time. Almost all = of the=20 letters =97 five out of seven =97 begin with praise; two contain = praise only,=20 but the other five have reproaches, some of them serious, = accompanied by=20 threats of punishment. These reproaches are of a general nature = (=93you have=20 abandoned your first fervour=94: 2:4; =93you have a name of being = alive, but=20 you are dead=94: 3:1); sometimes they are more precise, as when = they are=20 criticised for tolerating =93the teaching of the Nicolaitans=94 = (2:15) or for=20 their compromise with idolatry (2:14,21). All the letters express = =93what=20 the Spirit is saying to the churches=94. 236 They show = that, in=20 most cases, the Christian communities deserve reproaches and that = the=20 Spirit is calling them to conversion. 237

9. The = Promises

54. Many of the promises made by God in the Old = Testament=20 are re-read in the light of Jesus Christ in the New Testament. = This poses=20 real and delicate questions which touch upon the dialogue between = Jews and=20 Christians; they concern the legitimacy of an interpretation of = the=20 promises over and above their original, obvious meaning. Who = exactly are=20 the descendants of Abraham? Is the Promised Land first and = foremost a=20 geographical location? What future horizon does the God of = Revelation=20 reserve for Israel, the people originally chosen? What becomes of = the wait=20 for the kingdom of God? And for the Messiah?

a) Descent from Abraham

In the Old Testament

God promised to Abraham innumerable = descendants=20 238 through the single son, the privileged inheritor, born = of=20 Sarah. 239 These descendants will become, like Abraham = himself,=20 a source of blessing for all the nations (12:3; 22:18). The = promise is=20 renewed to Isaac (24:4,24) and Jacob (28:14; 32:13).

The experience of oppression in Egypt does not = prevent the=20 realisation of the promise. On the contrary, the beginning of the = Book of=20 Exodus attests many times to the numerical growth of the Hebrews = (Ex=20 1:7,12,20). When the people are freed from oppression, the promise = is=20 already fulfilled: the Israelites are =93numerous as the stars of = heaven=94,=20 but God increases their number even more, as he promised (Dt = 1:10-11). The=20 people lapse into idolatry and are threatened with extermination; = Moses=20 then intercedes before God on their behalf; he recalls God's oath = made to=20 Abraham, Isaac and Jacob to multiply their descendants (Ex 32:13). = A grave=20 act of disobedience on the part of the people in the desert (Nu = 14:2-4),=20 as at the foot of Sinai (Ex 32), gives rise, as in Ex 32, to = Moses'=20 intercession, which is answered, and saves the people from the=20 consequences of their sin. Nevertheless, the present generation = will be=20 excluded from the promised land, with the exception of Caleb's = clan which=20 remained faithful (Nu 14:20-24). Subsequent generations of = Israelites will=20 enjoy all the promises made to their ancestors on the condition = however of=20 resolutely choosing =93life and blessing=94 and not =93death and = curse=94 (Dt=20 30:19), which unfortunately the northern Israelites did choose = later on,=20 with the result that =93the Lord rejected=94 them (2 K 17:20), as = he did also=20 the southern kingdom that he subjected to the purifying trial of = the=20 Babylonian Exile (Jr 25:11).

The ancient promises were quickly revived for = those who=20 returned. 240 After the Exile, to preserve purity of = descent,=20 beliefs and observances, =93those of Israelite descent separated = themselves=20 from all foreigners=94. 241 Later on, the little Book = of Jonah =97=20 perhaps also, according to some, Ruth =97 denounces such closed=20 particularism. This poorly reflects the prophetic message in the = Book of=20 Isaiah where God bestows on =93all the peoples=94 the hospitality = of his house=20 (Is 56:3-7).

In the New Testament

55. In the New Testament, the validity of the = promise made=20 to Abraham is never called into question. The Magnificat and the=20 Benedictus refer explicitly to it. 242 Jesus is = presented as=20 =93son of Abraham=94 (Mt 1:1). To be a son or daughter of Abraham = (Lk 13:16;=20 19:19) is a great honour. Nevertheless, the understanding of the = promise=20 differs from the one given in Judaism. The preaching of John the = Baptist=20 already relativises the importance of belonging to the family of = Abraham.=20 Descent from him according to the flesh is not enough, nor is it = even=20 necessary (Mt 3:9; Lk 3:8). Jesus declares that the pagans =93will = take=20 their place at the banquet with Abraham=94, =93while the heirs of = the kingdom=20 will be cast out=94 (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:28-29).

But it is Paul in particular who develops this = theme. To the=20 Galatians, preoccupied with entering, through circumcision, the = family of=20 the patriarch, in order to have a right to the promised heritage, = Paul=20 shows that circumcision is no longer necessary, for what is = important is=20 faith in Christ. By faith, one becomes a son of Abraham (Ga 3:17), = for=20 Christ is the privileged descendant (3:16) and, through faith, = people are=20 incorporated into Christ and so become =93descendants of Abraham, = heirs to=20 the promise=94 (3:29). It is in this way =97 and not through = circumcision =97=20 that the pagans will receive the blessing transmitted by Abraham = (3:8,14).=20 In Ga 4: 22-31, a daring typological interpretation arrives at the = same=20 conclusions.

In the Letter to the Romans (4:1-25), Paul returns = to the=20 subject in less polemical terms. He highlights the faith of = Abraham, for=20 him the source of justification and the basis of Abraham's = paternity which=20 extends to all who believe whether Jew or pagan. For God had = promised=20 Abraham: =93You shall be the father of a multitude of nations=94 = (Gn 17:4);=20 Paul sees the promise realised in the many believers of pagan = origin who=20 belong to Christ (Rm 4:11,17-18). He makes a distinction between = =93children=20 of the flesh=94 and =93children of the promise=94 (Rm 9:8). The = Jews who belong=20 to Christ are both. Believers of pagan origin are =93children of = the=20 promise=94, that is the more important of the two.

In this way, Paul confirms and accentuates the = universal=20 import of Abraham's blessing and situates the true posterity of = the=20 patriarch in the spiritual order.

b) The Promised Land

56. Every human group wishes to inhabit territory = in a=20 permanent manner. Otherwise, reduced to the status of stranger or = refugee,=20 it finds itself, at best, tolerated, or at worst, exploited and=20 continually oppressed. Israel was freed from slavery in Egypt and = received=20 from God the promise of land. Its realisation required time and = gave rise=20 to many problems throughout the course of its history. For the = people of=20 the Bible, even after the return from the Babylonian Exile, the = land=20 remained an object of hope: =93Those blessed by the lord=94will = possess the=20 land (Ps 37:22).

In the Old Testament

The term =93promised land=94 is not found in the = Hebrew Bible,=20 which has no word for =93promise=94. The idea is expressed by the = future tense=20 of the verb =93to give=94, or by using the verb =93to swear=94: = =93the land which he=20 swore to give to you=94 (Ex 13:5; 33:1, etc.).

In the Abraham traditions, the promise of land = will be=20 fulfilled through descendants. 243 It concerns the = =93land of=20 Canaan=94 (Gn 17:8). God raises up a leader, Moses, to liberate = Israel and=20 lead it into the promised land. 244 But the people as a = whole=20 lose faith: of those faithful from the beginning, only a few = survive the=20 long journey through the desert; it is the younger generation that = will=20 enter the land (Nu 14:26-38). Moses himself dies without being = able to=20 enter (Dt 34:1-5). Under the leadership of Joshua, the tribes of = Israel=20 are settled in the promised territory.

For the Priestly tradition, the land must as far = as possible=20 be without blemish, for God himself dwells there (Nu 35:34). The = gift is=20 therefore conditioned by moral purity 245 and by = service to the=20 Lord alone, to the exclusion of foreign gods (Jos 24:14-24). On = the other=20 hand, God himself is the owner of the land. If the Israelites = dwell there,=20 it is as =93strangers and sojourners=94, 246 like the = patriarchs in=20 former times (Gn 23:4; Ex 6:4).

After the reign of Solomon, the heritage land was = split into=20 two rival kingdoms. The prophets condemn idolatry and social = injustice;=20 they threaten punishment: the loss of the land, conquered by = foreigners,=20 and the exile of its population. But they always leave open a way = to=20 return to a new occupation of the promised land, 247 = while=20 emphasising also the central role of Jerusalem and its = Temple.=20 248 Later the perspective opens out to an eschatological = future.=20 Although occupying a limited geographical space, the promised land = will=20 become the focus of attraction for the nations. 249

The theme of the land should not be allowed to = overshadow=20 the manner in which the Book of Joshua recounts the entry to the = promised=20 land. Many texts 250 speak of consecrating to God the = fruits of=20 victory, called the ban (ch=E9r=E8m). To prevent all = foreign religious=20 contamination, the ban imposed the obligation of destroying all = places and=20 objects of pagan cults (Dt 7:5), as well as all living beings = (20:15-18).=20 The same applies when an Israelite town succumbs to idolatry, Dt = 13:16-18=20 prescribes that all its inhabitants be put to death and that the = town=20 itself be burned down.

At the time when Deuteronomy was written =97 as = well as the=20 Book of Joshua =97 the ban was a theoretical postulate, since = non-Israelite=20 populations no longer existed in Judah. The ban then could be the = result=20 of a projection into the past of later preoccupations. Indeed, = Deuteronomy=20 is anxious to reinforce the religious identity of a people exposed = to the=20 danger of foreign cults and mixed marriages. 251

Therefore, to appreciate the ban, three factors = must be=20 taken into account in interpretation; theological, moral, and one = mainly=20 sociological: the recognition of the land as the inalienable = domain of the=20 lord;the necessity of guarding the people from all temptation = which would=20 compromise their fidelity to God; finally, the all too human = temptation of=20 mingling with religion the worst forms of resorting to = violence.

In the New Testament

57. The New Testament does not develop much = further the=20 theme of the promised land. The flight of Jesus and his parents to = Egypt=20 and their return to the =93land of promise=94 (Mt 2:20-21) clearly = retraces=20 the journey of the ancestors; a theological typology undergirds = this=20 narrative. In Stephen's discourse which recalls their history, the = word=20 =93promise=94 or =93promised=94 is found side by side with = =93land=94 and =93heritage=94=20 (Ac 7:2-7). Although not found in the Old Testament, the = expression =93land=20 of promise=94 is found in the New (Heb 11:9), in a passage which,=20 undoubtedly, recalls the historical experience of Abraham to = better=20 underline its provisional and incomplete character, and its = orientation=20 towards the absolute future of the world and history. For the = author, the=20 =93land=94 of Israel is only a symbolic pointer towards a very = different land,=20 a =93heavenly homeland=94. 252 One of the beatitudes = transforms the=20 geographical and historical meaning 253 into a more = open-ended=20 one, =93the meek shall possess the land=94 (Mt 5:5); =93the = land=94 is equivalent=20 here to =93the kingdom of heaven=94 (5:3,10) in an eschatological = horizon that=20 is both present and future.

The authors of the New Testament are only = deepening a=20 symbolic process already at work in the Old Testament and in=20 intertestamental Judaism. It should not be forgotten, however, = that a=20 specific land was promised by God to Israel and received as a = heritage;=20 this gift of the land was on condition of fidelity to the covenant = (Lv 26;=20 Dt 28).

c) The eternal and the final salvation of = Israel

In the Old Testament

58. What kind of future awaits the people of the = covenant?=20 Down through history the people itself has constantly asked this = question=20 in direct connection with the themes of divine judgement and=20 salvation.

From before the Exile, the prophets questioned the = naive=20 hope in a =93Day of the lord=94which would automatically bring = salvation and=20 victory over the enemy. Quite to the contrary, to announce the = unhappy lot=20 of a people seriously deficient in social consciousness and faith, = they=20 reversed the image of the Day of the lordinto one of =93darkness = and not=20 light=94, 254 not, however, without leaving some little = light of=20 hope to glimmer intermittently. 255

The experience of the Exile as the result of the = breaking of=20 the covenant, posed the same question with maximum urgency: Can = Israel,=20 far from its land, still hope for salvation from God? Has it any = future?=20 First Ezechiel, followed by Second Isaiah, announces, in God's = name, a new=20 Exodus, that is, Israel's return to its own country, = 256 an=20 experience of salvation that implies several elements: the = gathering=20 together of a dispossessed people (Ezk 36:24) brought about by the = Lord=20 himself, 257 a profound interior transformation, = 258=20 national 259 and cultic 260 renewal, as well = as the=20 revival of past divine choices, especially the choice of the = ancestors=20 Abraham and Jacob 261 and that of king David (Ezk=20 34:23-24).

More recent prophetic developments continue along = the same=20 lines. Prophetic messages solemnly proclaim that the race of = Israel will=20 endure forever, 262 and will never cease to be a nation = before=20 the Lord and will never be rejected by him, despite all that it = has done=20 (Jr 31:35-37). The Lord promises to restore his people. = 263 The=20 ancient promises made in Israel's favour are confirmed. The = post-exilic=20 prophets expand their range within a universal horizon. = 264

Regarding the future, the importance of one = particular theme=20 must be emphasised as the counterpart: that of =93remnant=94. = Theologically,=20 the future of Israel is guaranteed, but it is a circumscribed = group,=20 instead of the whole people, that will be the carrier of national = hopes=20 and God's salvation. 265 The post-exilic community = considered=20 itself to be this =93remnant of survivors=94, awaiting the = salvation of=20 God. 266

In the New Testament

59. In the light of the resurrection of Jesus, = what becomes=20 of Israel, the chosen people? God's pardon is offered to it from = the start=20 (Ac 2:38), as well as salvation by faith in the risen Christ = (13:38-39);=20 many Jews accepted, 267 including =93a multitude of = priests=94=20 (6:7), but the leaders were opposed to the nascent Church, and in = the end,=20 the majority of the people did not attach themselves to Christ. = This=20 situation has always aroused serious questions with regard to the=20 fulfilment of the salvific plan of God. The New Testament searched = for an=20 explanation in the ancient prophecies and maintained that the = situation=20 was foretold there, especially in Is 6:9-10, which is frequently = quoted in=20 this regard. 268 Paul, in particular, experienced great = sorrow=20 (Rm 9:1-3) and confronted the problem in depth (Rm 9-11). His = =93brothers=20 according to the flesh=94 (Rm 9:3) =93have stumbled over the = stumbling stone=94=20 put there by God; rather than relying on faith, they relied on = works=20 (9:32). They have stumbled, but not =93so as to fall=94 (11:11). = For =93God has=20 not rejected his people=94 (11:2); witness to that is the = existence of a=20 =93Remnant=94, who believe in Christ; Paul himself is part of that = Remnant=20 (11:1,4-6). For him, the existence of this Remnant guarantees the = hope of=20 Israel's full restoration (11:12,15). The failure of the chosen = people is=20 part of God's paradoxical plan: it brings about the =93salvation = of the=20 pagans=94 (11:11). =93A hardening has come upon a part of Israel, = until the=20 full number of the Gentiles has come in, then all Israel will be = saved=94,=20 through the mercy of God, who has promised it (11:25-26). = Meanwhile, Paul=20 puts Christian converts from paganism on their guard against the = pride and=20 self-reliance which lie in wait for them, if they forget that they = are=20 only wild branches grafted on to the good olive tree, Israel = (11:17-24).=20 The Israelites remain =93loved=94 by God and are promised a bright = future =93for=20 the gifts and the call of God are irrevocable=94 (11:29). This is = a very=20 positive doctrine which Christians should never forget.

d) The reign of God

60. Many passages in the Bible express the = expectation of a=20 completely renewed world through the inauguration of an ideal = reign in=20 which God takes and keeps all the initiative. Nevertheless, the = two=20 Testaments differ considerably, not only in the importance which = each one=20 accords this theme, but especially by the different accents they = place on=20 it.

In the Old Testament

The concept of divine kingship has deep roots in = the=20 cultures of the ancient Near East. The reign of God over his = people Israel=20 appears in the Pentateuch, 269 especially in the Book = of Judges=20 (Jg 8:22-23) and in the First Book of Samuel (1 S 8:7; 12:12). God = is also=20 acclaimed as King of the whole universe, particularly in the royal = Psalms=20 (Ps 93-99). The lord reveals himself to the prophet Isaiah = c.740=20 B.C. (Is 6:3-5). One prophet unveils him as the universal King, = surrounded=20 by a celestial court (1 K 22:19-22).

During the Exile, the prophets conceive the reign = of God as=20 operative in the very heart of the eventful history of the chosen=20 people. 270 So too in more recent prophetic texts. = 271 Nevertheless, the theme already begins to take on a more = emphatic eschatological colouration 272 which manifests = itself=20 in the sovereign arbitration that the Lord will exercise over the = nations=20 of the world from his dwelling place on Mount Zion (Is 2:1-4 =3D = Mi 4:1-4).=20 The greatest degree of eschatological concentration is reached in = the=20 apocalyptic literature with the emergence of a mysterious figure = presented=20 as =93one like a son of man=94, =93coming on the clouds of = heaven=94, to whom =93was=20 given dominion and glory and kingship=94 over =93all the = peoples=94 (Dn=20 7:13-14). Here, one is approaching the idea of a transcendent, = heavenly,=20 eternal reign, that the people of the saints of the Most High are = invited=20 to accept (7:18,22,27).

It is in the Psalter that the theme of God's reign = reaches=20 its height. There are six Psalms in particular. 273 = Five have=20 the same key phrase in common: =93The lordreigns=94, which is = placed either at=20 the beginning or in the middle. 274 There is great = emphasis on=20 the cosmic, ethical and cultic dimensions of this reign. In Ps 47 = and 96=20 universalism is emphasised: =93God reigns over the = nations=94. 275=20 Ps 99 makes way for human mediation that is royal, priestly and = prophetic=20 (99:6-8). Ps 96 and 98 open out to an eschatological and universal = reign=20 of God. On the other hand, Ps 114, a Passover psalm, celebrates = the=20 lordboth as King of Israel and King of the universe. The reign of = God is=20 suggested in many other Psalms as well.

In the New Testament

61. The reign of God, a theme well attested in the = Old=20 Testament, especially in the Psalter, becomes a major theme in the = Synoptic Gospels, because it serves as the basis of Jesus' = prophetic=20 preaching, his messianic mission, his death and resurrection. The = ancient=20 promise is now fulfilled, in a fruitful tension between the = already and=20 the not-yet. Certainly at the time of Jesus, the Old Testament = concept of=20 a =93reign of God=94 that was imminent, terrestrial, political, = and centred on=20 =93Israel=94 and in =93Jerusalem=94, was still strongly entrenched = (Lk 19:11),=20 even among the disciples (Mt 20:21; Ac 1:6). But the New Testament = as a=20 whole brings about a radical change, which was already evident in=20 intertestamental Judaism where the idea of a heavenly, eternal = kingdom=20 makes its appearance (Jubilees XV:32; XVI:18).

Matthew most frequently speaks of =93the kingdom = of the=20 heavens=94 (33 times), a semitism which avoids pronouncing the = name of=20 God. It devolves on Jesus to =93preach the good news of the = kingdom=94 through=20 teaching, healing of illnesses 276 and the expulsion of = demons=20 (12:28). The teaching of Jesus on the =93righteousness=94 = necessary for entry=20 into the kingdom (5:20) proposes a very high religious and moral = ideal=20 (5:21-7:27). Jesus announces that the reign of God is near at hand = (4:17),=20 which inserts an eschatological tension into the present time. = From now on=20 the reign belongs to those who are =93poor in spirit=94 (5:3) and = to those who=20 are =93persecuted for the sake of righteousness=94 (5:10). Several = parables=20 present the reign of God as present and operative in the world, as = a seed=20 that grows (13:31-32), as a leaven active in the dough (13:33). = For his=20 role in the Church, Peter will receive =93the keys of the kingdom = of heaven=94=20 (16:19). Other parables concentrate on eschatological = judgement.=20 277 The kingdom of God becomes a reality now through the = reign of=20 the Son of Man. 278 A comparison between Mt 18:9 and Mk = 9:47=20 shows that the kingdom of God points to the access to the true = =93life=94, in=20 other words, the access to the communion that God accomplishes for = his=20 people, in justice and holiness through Jesus Christ.

Mark and Luke have the same teaching as Matthew, = each with=20 his own nuances. Elsewhere in the New Testament the theme is less=20 prominent, though frequent enough. 279 Without using = the=20 expression =93kingdom of God=94, 280 the Book of = Revelation=20 describes the great battle against the forces of evil that = produces the=20 establishment of this reign. The =93kingship of the world=94 = belongs from now=20 on =93to our Lord and his Christ=94, =93he will reign for ever and = ever=94 (Rv=20 11:15).

e) The son and successor of David

In the Old Testament

62. In some biblical texts, the hope of a better = world is=20 mediated through a human agent. An ideal king is awaited, who will = liberate from oppression and establish perfect justice (Ps 72). = This=20 waiting takes shape, beginning with the message of the prophet = Nathan who=20 promised king David that one of his sons would succeed him and = that his=20 kingdom would last forever (2 S 7:11-16). The obvious sense of = this oracle=20 is not messianic; it did not promise David a privileged successor = who=20 would inaugurate the definitive reign of God in a renewed world, = but=20 simply an immediate successor who, in turn, would be succeeded by = others.=20 Each of David's successors was an =93anointed=94 of the Lord, in = Hebrew=20 (m~=9Aiach), for kings were consecrated by the pouring of = oil, but=20 none of them was the Messiah. Other prophecies, following = Nathan's, in the=20 crises of the succeeding centuries, promised that the dynasty = would=20 certainly endure as part of God's fidelity to his people (Is = 7:14), but=20 they tended more and more to paint a portrait of an ideal king who = would=20 inaugurate the reign of God. 281 Even the failure of = the=20 political expectations to materialise only served to deepen that = hope. The=20 ancient prophetic messages and the royal Psalms (Ps 2; 45; 72; = 110) were=20 reread with this hope in mind.

The final results of this revolution appear in the = writings=20 from the Second Temple period, and in the writings of Qumran. They = express=20 messianic expectation in different forms: royal messianic, = priestly, and=20 heavenly. 282 Other Jewish writings combine the = expectation of=20 earthly salvation for Jerusalem with an eternal salvation beyond = this=20 world, by proposing an earthly and intermediate messianic kingdom = that=20 would precede the coming of the definitive reign of God in a new=20 creation. 283 Although messianic hope continued to be = part of=20 the traditions of Judaism, it did not appear in all currents as a = central=20 and integral theme, even as a special indicator.

In the New Testament

63. For the Christian communities of the first = century,=20 however, the promise of an anointed son of David becomes an = essential and=20 basic interpretative key. Although the Old Testament and the=20 intertestamental literature can still speak of an eschatology = without a=20 Messiah in the context of the vast movement of eschatological = expectation,=20 the New Testament itself clearly recognises in Jesus of Nazareth = the=20 promised Messiah, awaited by Israel (and by the whole of = humanity): it is=20 he, therefore, who fulfils the promise. Hence, the concern for = emphasising=20 his Davidic descent, 284 and even his superiority to = his royal=20 ancestor, who calls him =93Lord=94 (Mk 12:35-37 and par.).

In the New Testament, the Hebrew term m~=9Aiach = transliterated in Greek as messias is only found twice, = and is=20 followed by its Greek translation christos, which means=20 =93anointed=94. 285 In Jn 1:41 the context points to = royal=20 messianism (cf. 1:49: =93King of Israel=94), in 4:25 to a = prophetic Messiah,=20 in accordance with Samaritan beliefs: =93He will tell you = everything=94. Jesus=20 here explicitly acknowledges this title (4:26). Elsewhere, the New = Testament expresses the idea of Messiah by the word = christos, but=20 at times also by the expression =93he who is to come=94. = 286 The=20 title christos is reserved to Jesus except in texts that = denounce=20 false messiahs. 287 Together with Kyrios, = =93Lord=94, it is=20 the most frequently used title to identify who Jesus is. It sums = up his=20 mystery. He is the object of many confessions of faith in the New=20 Testament. 288

In the Synoptics, the recognition of Jesus as = Messiah plays=20 a prominent role, especially in Peter's confession (Mk 8:27-29 and = par.).=20 The explicit prohibition against revealing the title, far from = being a=20 denial, confirms rather a radically new understanding of it in = contrast to=20 a too earthly political expectation on the part of the disciples = and the=20 crowds (8:30). The necessary passage through suffering and death = is=20 affirmed. 289 Confronted by the High Priest during his = trial,=20 Jesus clearly identifies himself with the Messiah according to Mk=20 14:61-62: the drama of the passion lifts the veil on the specific=20 uniqueness of Jesus' Messiahship, in line with the Suffering = Servant who=20 is described by Isaiah. The paschal events open the way to the = parousia,=20 in other words, to the coming of =93the Son of Man in the clouds = of heaven=94=20 (Mk 13:26 and par.), a hope already expressed opaquely in the = apocalypse=20 of Daniel (Dn 7:13-14).

In the Fourth Gospel, the messianic identity of = Jesus is the=20 object of remarkable confessions of faith, 290 but also = the=20 ocasion for several controversies with the Jews. 291 = Numerous=20 =93signs=94 tend to confirm it. It is plainly a transcendent = royalty that is=20 described (18:36-37), incomparably different from the = nationalistic and=20 political aspirations current at the time (6:15).

According to Nathan's prophetic message, the son = and=20 successor of David will be recognised as son of God. = 292 The=20 New Testament proclaims that Jesus is in reality =93the Christ, = the Son of=20 God=94, 293 and gives that sonship a transcendent = definition:=20 Jesus is one with the Father. 294

A privileged witness to the Church's post-paschal = faith,=20 Luke's second volume makes the royal consecration (messianic) of = Jesus=20 coincide with the moment of his resurrection (Ac 2:36). The = demonstration=20 of the title's credibility becomes an essential element of the = apostolic=20 preaching. 295 In the Pauline corpus, the word = =93Christ=94=20 abounds, frequently as a proper name, deeply rooted in the = theology of the=20 cross (1 Co 1:13; 2:2) and glorification (2 Co 4:4-5). Based on Ps = 109=20 (110), verses 1 and 4, the Letter to the Hebrews demonstrates that = Christ=20 is the priest-Messiah (5:5-6:10) as well as royal Messiah (1:8; = 8:1). This=20 expresses the priestly dimension of Christ's sufferings and his=20 glorification. In the Book of Revelation, Jesus' Messiahship is = set in the=20 Davidic line: Jesus possesses =93the key of David=94 (Rv 3:7), he = fulfils the=20 Davidic messianism of Ps 2; 296 he declares: =93I am = the shoot=20 and the descendent of David=94 (Rv 22:16).

For the New Testament then, it is Jesus who = fulfils in his=20 person, above all in his paschal mystery, all the promises of = salvation=20 associated with the coming of the Messiah. He is Son of David of = course,=20 but also Suffering Servant, Son of Man and eternal Son of God. In = him,=20 salvation takes on a new dimension. The emphasis changes from a=20 predominantly earthly salvation to a transcendent one that = surpasses the=20 conditions of temporal existence. It is addressed to every single = human=20 being, to the entire human race. 297

 

C. = Conclusion

64. Christian readers were convinced that their = Old=20 Testament hermeneutic, although significantly different from that = of=20 Judaism, corresponds nevertheless to a potentiality of meaning = that is=20 really present in the texts. Like a =93revelation=94 during the = process of=20 photographic development, the person of Jesus and the events = concerning=20 him now appear in the Scriptures with a fullness of meaning that = could not=20 be hitherto perceived. Such a fullness of meaning establishes a = threefold=20 connection between the New Testament and the Old: continuity,=20 discontinuity, and progression.

1. = Continuity

In addition to recognising the authority of the = Jewish=20 Scriptures and despite the constant seeking to demonstrate that = the =93new=94=20 events were in conformity with what was predicted (see ch. 1), the = New=20 Testament fully appropriates the great themes of the theology of = Israel in=20 a threefold reference to past, present and future.

A universal perspective is always present: God is = one; it is=20 he who, by his word and spirit, created and sustains the whole = universe,=20 including human beings, who are =93great=94 and =93noble=94 = despite their=20 =93wretchedness=94.

Other themes are developed in the context of a = particular=20 history: God has spoken, he has chosen a people, has freed and = saved them=20 innumerable times, has established a covenant relationship with = them by=20 the giving of himself (grace) and by offering a way of = faithfulness (Law).=20 The person and work of Christ together with the existence of the = Church=20 prolong this history.

This opens up for the chosen people wonderful = future=20 horizons: posterity (promised to Abraham), living space (a = territory),=20 survival beyond crises and testings (due to God's fidelity), and = the=20 establishment of an ideal political order (the reign of God, = messianism).=20 From the beginning, a reign universal in its scope is envisaged = for the=20 blessing given to Abraham. The salvation bestowed by God will = spread to=20 the ends of the earth. Indeed, it is Jesus Christ who offers = salvation to=20 the entire world.

2. = Discontinuity

Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that the passage = from one=20 Testament to the other also involves ruptures. These do not = submerge=20 continuity. They presuppose it in essentials. Yet these ruptures = impinge=20 upon whole tracts of the Law: for example, institutions like the = levitical=20 priesthood of the Jerusalem Temple; cultic forms like animal = sacrifice;=20 religious and ritual practices like circumcision, rules concerning = purity=20 and impurity, dietary prescriptions; imperfect laws such as = divorce;=20 restrictive legal interpretations concerning the sabbath. It is = clear that=20 =97 from the viewpoint of Judaism =97 these are matters of great = importance=20 for it. But it is also clear that the radical replacement in the = New=20 Testament was already adumbrated in the Old Testament and so = constitute a=20 potentially legitimate reading.

3. = Progression

65. Discontinuity on certain points is only the = negative=20 side of what is positively called progression. The New Testament = attests=20 that Jesus, far from being in opposition to the Israelite = Scriptures,=20 revoking them as provisional, brings them instead to fulfilment in = his=20 person, in his mission, and especially in his paschal mystery. In = fact,=20 none of the great Old Testament themes escapes the new radiation = of=20 Christological light.

a) God. The New Testament firmly = holds on to=20 the monotheistic faith of Israel: God remains the One; = 298=20 nevertheless, the Son participates in this mystery that from now = on will=20 be expressed in a ternary symbolism, already opaquely foreshadowed = in the=20 Old Testament. 299 God creates by his word (Gn 1), but = this=20 Word pre-exists =93with God=94 and =93is God=94 (Jn 1:1-5), and = after entering=20 history through a line of authentic spokespersons (Moses and the=20 prophets), is now incarnate in Jesus of Nazareth. 300 = God also=20 creates =93by the breath of his mouth=94 (Ps 33:6). This breath is = =93the Holy=20 Spirit=94 sent from the Father by the risen Christ (Ac 2:33).

b) Human Beings. The human being is = created=20 noble, =93in the image of God=94 (Gn 1:26). But the most perfect = =93image of the=20 invisible God=94 is Christ (Col 1:15). And we ourselves are = invited to=20 become images of Christ, 301 that is, =93a new = creation=94.=20 302 From our poverty and wretchedness God saves and = liberates us=20 through the unique mediation of Jesus Christ, who died for our = sins and is=20 risen for our life. 303

c) The People. The New Testament = takes for=20 granted that the election of Israel, the people of the covenant, = is=20 irrevocable: it preserves intact its prerogatives (Rm 9:4) and its = priority status in history, in the offer of salvation (Ac 13:23) = and in=20 the Word of God (13:46). But God has also offered to Israel a = =93new=20 covenant=94 (Jr 31:31); this is now established through the blood = of=20 Jesus. 304 The Church is composed of Israelites who = have=20 accepted the new covenant, and of other believers who have joined = them. As=20 a people of the new covenant, the Church is conscious of existing = only in=20 virtue of belonging to Christ Jesus, the Messiah of Israel, and = because of=20 its link with the apostles, who were all Israelites. Far from = being a=20 substitution for Israel, 305 the Church is in = solidarity with=20 it. To the Christians who have come from the nations, the apostle = Paul=20 declares that they are grafted to the good olive tree which is = Israel (Rm=20 11:16,17). That is to say, the Church is conscious of being given = a=20 universal horizon by Christ, in conformity with Abraham's = vocation, whose=20 descendants from now on are multiplied in a filiation founded on = faith in=20 Christ (Rm 4:11-12). The reign of God is no longer confined to = Israel=20 alone, but is open to all, including the pagans, with a place of = honour=20 for the poor and oppressed. 306 The hope placed in the = royal=20 house of David, although defunct for six centuries, becomes the = essential=20 key for the reading of history: it is concentrated from now on in = Jesus=20 Christ, a humble and distant descendant. Finally, as regards the = land of=20 Israel (including the Temple and the holy city), the New Testament = extends=20 the process of symbolisation already begun in the Old Testament = and in=20 intertestamental Judaism.

Accordingly, for Christians, the God of revelation = has=20 pronounced his final word with the advent of Jesus Christ and the = Church.=20 =93Long ago God spoke to our ancestors in many and various ways = through the=20 prophets, but in these last days he has spoken to us through his = Son=94 (Heb=20 1:1-2).

III.
THE JEWS IN THE = NEW=20 TESTAMENT

66. Having examined the relationship between the = New=20 Testament writings and the Jewish Scriptures, we will now consider = the=20 various attitudes to the Jews expressed in the New Testament. We = will=20 begin by noting the diversity evident then within Judaism = itself.

 

A.=20 Different Viewpoints within post-exilic = Judaism

1.=20 The last centuries before Jesus Christ

=93Judaism=94 is a term designating the period of = Israelite=20 history which began in 538 B.C. with the permission from the = Persian=20 authorities to reconstruct the Jerusalem Temple. The religion of = Judaism,=20 in many respects, inherited the pre-exilic religion of the kingdom = of=20 Judah. The Temple was rebuilt: sacrifices were offered; hymns and = Psalms=20 were chanted, pilgrimage feasts were again celebrated. Judaism = took on a=20 particular religious hue after the proclamation of the Law by Ezra = (Ne=20 8:1-12) in the Persian era. Gradually, the synagogue became an = important=20 factor in Jewish life. Diverse attitudes to the Temple were a = source of=20 division for Jews until 70 A.D., as is clear in the Samaritan = schism and=20 in the Qumran manuscripts. Divisions based on different = interpretations of=20 the Law existed after the year 70 just as they did before.

The Samaritan community was a dissident group, = shunned by=20 others (Si 50:25-26). It was based on a particular form of the = Pentateuch=20 after rejection of the Jerusalem Temple and its priesthood. The = Samaritan=20 Temple was built on Mt Gerizim (Jn 4:9,20). They had their own=20 priesthood.

The description of three =93parties=94 or schools = of thought=20 given by Josephus, Pharisees, Sadduccees, and Essenes (Ant.13:5,9; = (*)171), is a simplification that must be interpreted with = circumspection.=20 One can be sure that many Jews did not belong to any of the three = groups.=20 Furthermore, the differences between them extended beyond the=20 religious.

The origin of the Sadduccees is probably to = be found=20 in the Zadokite priesthood of the Temple. They apparently became a = distinct group in Maccabean times because of the closed attitude = of one=20 section of the priesthood towards the Hasmonean rulers. The = difficulty of=20 precisely identifying them is evident from a study of the period = from the=20 Maccabean revolt against the Seleucids, from 167, to the Roman=20 intervention in 63. The Sadduccees became more and more identified = with=20 the Hellenised aristocracy who held power; one can surmise that = they had=20 little in common with the ordinary people.

The origin of the Essenes, according to = some authors,=20 dates from around 200 B.C. in an atmosphere of Jewish apocalyptic=20 expectations, but most see it as a reaction to the changing = attitude to=20 the Temple beginning from 152, when Jonathan, brother of Judas = Maccabeus,=20 was anointed High Priest. They are the Hasidim or =93pious=94 who = took part in=20 the Maccabean revolt (1 M 2:42), but later felt betrayed by = Jonathan and=20 Simon, brothers of Judas Maccabeus, who accepted appointment as = High=20 Priests by the Seleucid kings. What we know of the Essenes has = been=20 considerably augmented by the discoveries, beginning in 1947, of = about 800=20 scrolls and fragments at Qumran, near the Dead Sea. A majority of = scholars=20 are of the opinion that these documents come from a group of = Essenes who=20 established themselves on this site. In The Jewish = War,=20 307 Josephus gives a lengthy laudatory description of Essene = piety=20 and its way of life that, in many ways, resembled a monastic = settlement.=20 Disdaining the Temple ruled by priests whom they judged to be = unworthy,=20 the Qumran group formed the community of the new covenant. They = sought=20 perfection through strict observance of the Law, interpreted by = the=20 Teacher of Righteousness. They awaited an imminent messianic = appearance,=20 an intervention by God that would destroy all iniquity and punish = their=20 enemies.

The Pharisees were not a priestly movement. = Apparently, the seizure of the High Priesthood by the Maccabees = did not=20 proccupy them. Nevertheless, their very name, which implies = separation, is=20 probably the result of strong criticism of the Hasmonean = descendants of=20 the Maccabees, from whose growing secularised rule they = dissociated=20 themselves. To the written Law, the Pharisees added a second Law = of Moses,=20 the oral Law. Their interpretation was less strict than the = Essenes and=20 more innovative than the conservative Sadducees who accepted only = the=20 written Law. They also differed from the Sadduccees by professing = belief=20 in the resurrection of the dead and in angels (Ac 23:8), beliefs = that made=20 their appearance during the post-exilic period.

The relations between the different groups were at = times=20 severely strained, even to the point of hostility. It is worth = keeping in=20 mind that this hostility can put in context, from a religious = viewpoint,=20 the enmity that is found in the New Testament. High Priests were=20 responsible for much of the violence. There is the case of a High = Priest,=20 whose name is unknown, who tried to put to death, probably towards = the end=20 of the second century B.C., the Teacher of Righteousness in Qumran = during=20 the Yom Kippur celebrations. The Qumran writings are full of = polemics=20 against the Jerusalem Sadduccean hierarchy, wicked priests accused = of=20 violating the commandments, and they likewise denigrate the = Pharisees.=20 While exalting the Teacher of Righteousness, they accuse another = person=20 (an Essene?) of scoffing and lying and persecuting with the sword = =93all who=20 walk in perfection=94 (Damascus Document, ms. A,I,20). These = incidents=20 happened before the time of Herod the Great and the Roman rule in = Judea,=20 and so before the time of Jesus.

2. The=20 first third of the first century A.D. in Palestine

67. This is the period corresponding to the life = of Jesus=20 which had already begun a little earlier, when Jesus was born = before the=20 death of Herod the Great in 4 B.C. After his death, the emperor = Augustus=20 divided the kingdom between the three sons of Herod: Archelaus (Mt = 2:22),=20 Herod Antipas (14:1, etc.), and Philip (16:13; Lk 3:1). The reign = of=20 Archelaus stirred up hostility among his subjects, and Augustus = before=20 long put his territory, Judea, under Roman administration.

What was Jesus' attitude towards the three = religious=20 =93parties=94 mentioned above? Three questions in particular merit = consideration.

Which was the most important religious group = during Jesus'=20 public life? Josephus says that the Pharisees were the main party, = extremely influential in the towns. 308 It was perhaps = for this=20 reason that Jesus is presented more often in conflict with them = than with=20 any other group, an indirect acknowledgement of their importance.=20 Furthermore, this party within Judaism survived better than the = others and=20 nascent Christianity had to confront it.

What beliefs did the Pharisees hold? The Gospels = frequently=20 present the Pharisees as hypocritical and heartless legalists. = There was=20 an attempt to refute this by referring to certain rabbinical = attitudes=20 attested in the Mishna, which shows that they were neither = hypocritical=20 nor strictly legalist. But this argument is not convincing, for a = legalist=20 tendency is also present in the Mishna. Furthermore, it is unknown = whether=20 these attitudes codified by the Mishna c. 200, actually correspond = to=20 those of the Pharisees of Jesus' time. However, it must be = admitted, that=20 in all probability, the presentation of the Pharisees in the = Gospels was=20 influenced in part by subsequent polemics between Christians and = Jews. At=20 the time of Jesus, there were no doubt Pharisees who taught an = ethic=20 worthy of approval. But the first-hand direct testimony of Paul, a = Pharisee =93zealous for the traditions of the ancestors=94, shows = the excess=20 to which this zeal of the Pharisees could lead: =93I persecuted = the Church=20 of God=94. 309

Did Jesus belong to any of the three groups? There = is no=20 reason to think that Jesus was a Sadduccee. He was not a priest. = His=20 belief in angels and the resurrection of the body, as well as the=20 eschatological expectation attributed to him in the Gospels, is = much=20 closer to the theology of the Essenes and the Pharisees. But the = New=20 Testament never mentions the Essenes, and there is no recollection = that=20 Jesus belonged to such a specific community. As regards the = Pharisees, who=20 are frequently mentioned in the Gospels, their relationship with = Jesus is=20 usually one of opposition, because of his position of = non-conformance to=20 their observances. 310

It is much more likely that Jesus did not belong = to any of=20 the sects existing within Judaism at the time. He was simply one = of the=20 common people. Recent research has attempted to situate him in = various=20 contemporary contexts: a charismatic rabbi from Galilee, an = itinerant=20 Cynic preacher, and even a revolutionary zealot. He does not fit = into any=20 of these categories.

On Jesus' relationship with the Gentiles and their = ways of=20 thinking, there has been much speculation, but there is too little = information to go on. During this period in Palestine, even in = regions=20 where the greater part of the population was Jewish, Hellenistic = influence=20 was strong, but not equally felt everywhere. The influence on = Jesus of the=20 culture of the Hellenistic towns like Tiberias on the shore of = lake=20 Galilee and Sepphoris (6-7 kilometres from Nazareth) is still = uncertain,=20 since the Gospels give no indication that Jesus had any contact = with these=20 towns. Neither do we have any evidence that Jesus or his closest = disciples=20 spoke Greek in any significant measure. In the Synoptic Gospels, = Jesus has=20 little contact with Gentiles, he orders his disciples not to = preach to=20 them (Mt 10:5); he forbids imitation of their lifestyle (6:7,32). = Some of=20 his sayings reflect a Jewish attitude of superiority towards the=20 Gentiles, 311 but he knows how to distance himself from = such=20 attitudes and affirms instead the superiority of many of the = Gentiles (Mt=20 8:10-12).

What was the attitude of Jesus' early disciples to = the=20 Jewish religious environment? The Twelve and others would have = shared=20 Jesus' Galilean mentality, although the environs of the lake of = Galilee=20 where they lived were more cosmopolitan than Nazareth. The Fourth = Gospel=20 reports that Jesus drew disciples from John the Baptist (Jn = 1:35-41), that=20 he had Judean disciples (19:38) and that he converted one entire = Samaritan=20 village (4:39-42). The group of disciples, then, could very well = reflect=20 the pluralism that existed in Palestine at that time.

3. The=20 second third of the first century

68. The first period of direct Roman rule in Judea = came to=20 an end in 3940. Herod Agrippa I, friend of the emperor Caligula = (37-41)=20 and of the new emperor Claudius (41-54), became king of all = Palestine=20 (41-44). He gained the support of the Jewish religious leaders and = gave=20 the appearance of being religious. In Ac 12, Luke attributes a = persecution=20 to him, and also the death of James, the brother of John and son = of=20 Zebedee. After the death of Agrippa, which Ac 12:20-23 = dramatically=20 recounts, a second period of Roman rule began.

It was during this second third of the first = century that=20 the disciples of the risen Christ greatly increased in numbers and = were=20 organised into =93churches=94 (=93assemblies=94). It is likely = that the structures=20 of certain Jewish groups influenced primitive Church structures. = It may be=20 asked whether the Christian =93presbyters=94 or =93elders=94 were = modelled on the=20 =93elders=94 of the synagogues, and whether the Christian bishops=20 (=93overseers=94) were modelled on the Qumran =93overseers=94. = Does not the=20 designation of the Christian community as =93the way=94 (hodos) = reflect=20 the spirituality of the Qumran groups, gone into the desert to = prepare the=20 way of the Lord? From a theological viewpoint, some have thought = that=20 traces of Qumran influence are to be found in the dualism of the = Fourth=20 Gospel, expressed in terms of light and darkness, truth and = falsehood, in=20 the battle between Jesus, the light of the world, and the powers = of=20 darkness (Lk 22:53), and in the battle between the Spirit of Truth = and the=20 prince of this world (Jn 16:11). Nevertheless, the presence of = common=20 themes does not necessarily imply dependence.

The Roman procurators for the years 44-66 were men = devoid of=20 vision, corrupt and dishonest. Their mis-government gave rise to = the=20 =93sicarii=94 (terrorists armed with knives) and =93zealots=94 = (zealous for the=20 Law, devoid of pity), and finally provoked a great Jewish revolt = against=20 the Romans. The great Roman armies and their best generals fought = to quell=20 this revolt. For Christians, a noteworthy event was the death of = James,=20 =93the brother of the Lord=94, in the year 62, following a = decision of the=20 Sanhedrin convened by the High Priest Ananus (Anne) II. This High = Priest=20 was dismissed by the procurator Albinus for acting illegally. Only = two=20 years later, after a great fire ravaged Rome in July 64, the = emperor Nero=20 (54-68) persecuted the Christians in the capital city. According = to a very=20 ancient tradition, the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred at = that time.=20 Generally speaking, the last third of the first century may be = called the=20 post-apostolic era.

4. The=20 final third of the first century

69. The Jewish revolt of 66-70 and the destruction = of the=20 Jerusalem Temple precipitated a change in the dynamics of the = religious=20 groupings. The revolutionaries (sicarii, zealots and others) were=20 exterminated. The Qumran foundation was destroyed in 68. The = cessation of=20 Temple sacrifices weakened the power base of the Sadduccean = leaders who=20 belonged to the priestly families. We do not know to what extent = rabbinic=20 Judaism is the successor of the Pharisees. What we do know is that = after=20 70, the rabbinic masters, =93the sages of Israel=94, gradually = came to be=20 recognised as leaders of the people. Those who reassembled at = Jamnia=20 (Yavneh), on the coast of Palestine, were considered by the Roman=20 authorities to be spokespersons for the Jews. From c.90-110, = Gamaliel II,=20 son and grandson of distinguished interpreters of the Law, = presided over=20 =93the assembly=94 in Jamnia. When they speak of Judaism, = Christian writings=20 from this period were more and more influenced by this rabbinic = Judaism=20 then in the process of formation. In certain areas, conflicts = between the=20 synagogue leaders and Jesus' disciples were sharp. This is evident = from=20 the expulsion from the synagogue imposed on =93whoever confesses = Jesus as=20 the Christ=94 (Jn 9:22) and, on the other hand, in the strong = anti-Pharisee=20 polemic of Mt 23, as well as in the reference made from the = outside to=20 =93their synagogues=94 as places where Jesus' disciples = were flogged=20 (Mt 10:17). The Birkat ha-minim, a synagogal =93blessing=94 = (actually,=20 a curse) against non-conformists is often cited. Its dating to 85 = is=20 uncertain, and the idea that it was a universal Jewish decree = against=20 Christians is almost certainly wrong. But one cannot seriously = doubt that=20 at certain times in different places, local synagogues no longer = tolerated=20 the presence of Christians, and subjected them to harassment that = could=20 even go as far as putting them to death (Jn16:2). = 312

Gradually, probably from the beginning of the = second=20 century, a formula of =93blessing=94 denouncing heretics or = deviants of=20 different sorts was composed to include Christians, and much = later, they=20 were the ones specifically targeted. Everywhere, by the end of the = second=20 century, the lines of demarcation and division were sharply drawn = between=20 Christians and Jews who did not believe in Jesus. But texts like 1 = Th 2:14=20 and Rm 9-11 demonstrate that the lines of division were already = clearly=20 visible before that time.

 

B.=20 Jews in the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles

70. The Gospels and Acts have a basic outlook on = Jews that=20 is extremely positive because they recognise that the Jews are a = people=20 chosen by God for the fulfilment of his plan of salvation. This = divine=20 choice finds its highest confirmation in the person of Jesus, son = of a=20 Jewish mother, born to be the Saviour of his people, one who = fulfils his=20 mission by announcing the Good News to his people, and by = performing works=20 of healing and liberation that culminate in his passion and = resurrection.=20 The attachment to Jesus of a great number of Jews, during his = public life=20 and after his resurrection, confirms this perspective, as does = Jesus'=20 choice of twelve Jews to share in his mission and continue his = work.

The Good News, accepted wholeheartedly in the = beginning by=20 many Jews, met with opposition from the leaders, who were = eventually=20 followed by the greater part of the people. The result was that = between=20 Jewish and Christian communities a conflict situation arose that = clearly=20 left its mark on the redaction of the Gospels and Acts.

1. = The=20 Gospel according to Matthew

The relationship between the First Gospel and the = Jewish=20 world is extremely close. Many details in it show a great = familiarity with=20 the Scriptures, the traditions and the mentality of the Jewish = milieu.=20 More than Mark and Luke, Matthew stresses the Jewish origin of = Jesus: the=20 genealogy presents him as =93son of David, son of Abraham=94 (Mt = 1:1) and goes=20 no further back. The etymology of Jesus' name is underlined: the = child of=20 Mary will bear this name =93because it is he who will save his = people from=20 their sins=94 (1:21). Jesus' mission during his public life is = limited =93to=20 the lost sheep of the house of Israel=94 (15:24), and he assigns = the same=20 limits to the mission of the Twelve (10:5-6). More than the other=20 evangelists, Matthew often takes care to note that events in = Jesus' life=20 happened =93so that what had been spoken through the prophets = might be=20 fulfilled=94 (2:23). Jesus himself makes it clear that he has come = not to=20 abolish the Law, but to fulfil it (5:17).

Nevertheless, it is clear that the Christian = communities=20 kept their distance from the Jewish communities that did not = believe in=20 Jesus Christ. A significant detail: Matthew does not say that = Jesus taught=20 =93in the synagogues=94, but =93in their = synagogues=94 (4:23; 9:35:=20 13:54), in this way noting the separation. Matthew introduces two = of the=20 three Jewish parties described by the historian Josephus, the = Pharisees=20 and the Sadduccees, but always in a context of opposition to = Jesus. This=20 is also true for the scribes, 313 who are frequently = associated=20 with the Pharisees. Another significant fact: it is in the first=20 prediction of the passion (16:21) that the three divisions of the=20 Sanhedrin, =93the elders, chief priests and scribes=94, make their = first=20 appearance together in the Gospel. They are also set in a = situation of=20 radical opposition to Jesus.

Jesus many times confronts the opposition of the = scribes and=20 Pharisees, and finally responds by a vigorous counter-offensive=20 (23:2-7,13-36) where the phrase =93Scribes and Pharisees, = hypocrites!=94=20 occurs six times. This invective certainly reflects, in part at = least, the=20 situation of Matthew's community. The redactional context is that = of two=20 groups living in close contact with one another: Jewish = Christians,=20 convinced that they belong to authentic Judaism, and those Jews = who do not=20 believe in Christ Jesus, considered by Christians to be unfaithful = to=20 their Jewish vocation in their docility to blind and hypocritical=20 guides.

It should be noted that Matthew's polemic does not = include=20 Jews in general. These are not named apart from the expression = =93the King=20 of the Jews=94, applied to Jesus (2:2; 27:11,29,37) and in the = final chapter=20 (28:15), a phrase of minor importance. The polemic is for the most = part=20 internal, between two groups both belonging to Judaism. On the = other hand,=20 only the leaders are in view. Although in Isaiah's message the = whole vine=20 is reprimanded (Is 5:1-7), in Matthew's parable it is only the = tenants who=20 are accused (Mt 21:33-41). The invective and the accusations = hurled at the=20 scribes and Pharisees are similar to those found in the prophets, = and=20 correspond to a contemporary literary genre which was common in = Judaism=20 (for example, Qumran) and also in Hellenism. Moreover, they put = Christians=20 themselves on guard against attitudes incompatible with the Gospel = (23:8-12).

Furthermore, the anti-Pharisee virulence of Mt 23 = must be=20 seen in the context of the apocalyptic discourse of Mt 24-25. = Apocalyptic=20 language is employed in times of persecution to strengthen the = capacity=20 for resistance on the part of the persecuted minority, and to = reinforce=20 their hopes of a liberating divine intervention. Seen in this = perspective,=20 the vigour of the polemic is less astonishing.

Nevertheless, it must be recognised that Matthew = does not=20 always confine his polemics to the leading class. The diatribe of = Mt 23=20 against the scribes and Pharisees is followed by an apostrophe = addressed=20 to Jerusalem. It is the whole city that is accused of =93killing = the=20 prophets=94 and of =93stoning those sent to it=94 (23:37), and it = is for the=20 whole city that punishment is predicted (23:38). Of its = magnificent Temple=20 =93there will not remain a stone upon a stone=94 (24:2). Here is a = situation=20 parallel to Jeremiah's time (Jr 7:26). The prophet announced the=20 destruction of the Temple and the ruin of the city (26:6,11). = Jerusalem is=20 about to become =93a curse for all the nations of the earth=94 = (26:6), exactly=20 the opposite of the blessing promised to Abraham and his = descendants (Gn=20 12:3; 22:18).

71. At the time of the Gospel's redaction, the = greater part=20 of the Jewish population had followed their leaders in their = refusal to=20 believe in Christ Jesus. Jewish Christians were only a minority. = The=20 evangelist, therefore, foresees that Jesus' threats were about to = be=20 fulfilled. These threats were not directed at Jews as Jews, but = only=20 insofar as they were in solidarity with their leaders in their = lack of=20 docility to God. Matthew expresses this solidarity in the passion=20 narrative when he reports that at the instigation of the chief = priests and=20 elders =93the crowd=94 demands of Pilate that Jesus be crucified = (Mt=20 27:20-23). In response to the Roman governor's denial of = responsibility,=20 =93all the people=94 present themselves took responsibility for = putting Jesus=20 to death (27:24-25). On the people's side, adopting this position=20 certainly showed their conviction that Jesus merited death, but to = the=20 evangelist, such conviction was unjustifiable: the blood of Jesus = was=20 =93innocent blood=94 (27:4), as even Judas recognised. Jesus would = have made=20 his own the words of Jeremiah: =93Know for certain that if you put = me to=20 death, you will be bringing innocent blood upon yourselves and = upon this=20 city and its inhabitants=94 (Jr 26:15). From an Old Testament = perspective,=20 the sins of the leaders inevitably bring disastrous consequences = for the=20 whole community. If the Gospel was redacted after 70 A.D., the = evangelist=20 knew that, like Jeremiah's prediction, Jesus' prediction had also = been=20 fulfilled. But he did not see this fulfilment as final, for all = the=20 Scriptures attest that after the divine sanction God always opens = up a=20 positive perspective. 314 The discourse of Mt 23 does = end on a=20 positive note. A day will come when Jerusalem will say: =93Blessed = is he who=20 comes in the name of the Lord=94 (23:39). Jesus' passion itself = opens up the=20 most positive perspective of all, for, from his =93innocent = blood=94=20 criminally shed, Jesus has constituted a =93blood of the = covenant=94, =93poured=20 out for the remission of sins=94 (26:38).

Like the people's cry in the passion narrative = (27:25), the=20 ending of the parable of the tenants seems to indicate that, at = the time=20 of the Gospel's composition, the majority of the Jews had followed = their=20 leaders in their refusal to believe in Jesus. Indeed, having = predicted=20 that =93the kingdom of God will be taken away from you=94, Jesus = did not add=20 that the kingdom would be given =93to other leaders=94, but would = be given =93to=20 a nation producing its fruits=94 (21:43). The expression = =93a nation=94=20 is implicitly opposed to the =93people of Israel=94; this = assuredly suggests=20 that a great number of the subjects will not be of Jewish origin. = The=20 presence of Jews is in no way excluded, for the Gospel community = is aware=20 that this =93nation=94 will be set up under the authority of the = Twelve, in=20 particular of Peter, and the Twelve are Jews. With these and other = Jews=20 =93many will come from east and west and will eat with Abraham and = Isaac and=20 Jacob in the kingdom of heaven, while the heirs of the kingdom = will be=20 thrown into outer darkness=94 (8:11-12). This universal outlook is = definitively confirmed at the end of the Gospel, for the risen = Jesus=20 commands the =93eleven disciples=94 to go and teach =93all the = nations=94 (28:19).=20 This ending, at the same time, confirms the vocation of Israel, = for Jesus=20 is a son of Israel and in him the prophecy of Daniel concerning = Israel's=20 role in history is fulfilled. The words of the risen One: =93All = authority=20 in heaven and on earth has been given to me=94 315 make = explicit=20 in what sense the universal vision of Daniel and the other = prophets are=20 henceforth to be understood.

Conclusion. More than the other Synoptic = Gospels,=20 Matthew is the Gospel of fulfilment =97 Jesus has not come to = abolish, but=20 to fulfil =97 for it insists more on the continuity with the Old = Testament,=20 basic for the idea of fulfilment. It is this aspect that makes = possible=20 the establishment of fraternal bonds between Christians and Jews. = But on=20 the other hand, the Gospel of Matthew reflects a situation of = tension and=20 even opposition between the two communities. In it Jesus foresees = that his=20 disciples will be flogged in the synagogues and pursued from town = to town=20 (23:34). Matthew therefore is concerned to provide for the = Christians'=20 defence. Since that situation has radically changed, Matthew's = polemic=20 need no longer interfere with relations between Christians and = Jews, and=20 the aspect of continuity can and ought to prevail. It is equally = necessary=20 to say this in relation to the destruction of the city and the = Temple.=20 This downfall is an event of the past which henceforth ought to = evoke only=20 deep compassion. Christians must be absolutely on their guard = against=20 extending responsibility for it to subsequent generations of Jews, = and=20 they must remind themselves that after a divine sanction, God = never fails=20 to open up positive new perspectives.

2. = The Gospel=20 according to Mark

72. Mark's Gospel is a message of salvation that = does not=20 inform us as to who the recipients are. The ending which has been = added=20 addresses it boldly =93to the whole of creation=94, =93into the = whole world=94=20 (16:15), an address which corresponds to its universalist = openness. As=20 regards the Jewish people, Mark, himself a Jew, does not pass any=20 judgement on them. The negative judgement of Isaiah (29:13) is = applied in=20 Mark only to the Pharisees and scribes (Mk 7:5-7). Apart from the = title=20 =93King of the Jews=94 which is applied to Jesus five times in the = passion=20 narrative, 316 the title =93Jew=94 appears only once in = the Gospel,=20 in the course of explaining Jewish customs (7:3), addressed = obviously to=20 non-Jews. This explanation comes in an episode in which Jesus = criticises=20 the Pharisees' extreme attachment to =93the tradition of the = elders=94,=20 causing them to neglect =93the commandments of God=94 (7:8). Mark = mentions=20 =93Israel=94 only twice, 317 and twice also =93the = people=94.=20 318 In contrast, he frequently mentions =93the crowd=94, for = the most=20 part certainly composed of Jews, and favourably disposed towards=20 Jesus, 319 except in one passion episode, where the = chief=20 priests pressure them to choose Barabbas (15:11).

It is towards the religious and political = authorities that=20 Mark takes a critical stance. His criticism is essentially of = their lack=20 of openness to the salvific mission of Jesus: the scribes accuse = Jesus of=20 blasphemy, because he uses his power to forgive sins (2:7-10); = they do not=20 accept that Jesus =93eats with publicans and sinners=94 (2:15-16); = they say he=20 is possessed by a devil (3:22). Jesus has continually to face = opposition=20 from them and from the Pharisees. 320

The political authorities are less frequently = called in=20 question: Herod for the death of John the Baptist (6:17-28) and = for his=20 =93leaven=94, juxtaposed with that of the Pharisees (8:15), the = Jewish=20 Sanhedrin, a political-religious authority (14:55; 15:1), and = Pilate=20 (15:15) for their role in the Passion.

In the passion narrative, the second Gospel = attempts=20 to reply to two questions: By whom is Jesus condemned and why is = he put to=20 death? It begins by giving a general answer that puts events in a = divine=20 light: all this happened =93so that the Scriptures might be = fulfilled=94=20 (14:49). It then reveals the role of the Jewish authorities and = that of=20 the Roman governor.

Jesus was arrested on the orders of the three = components of=20 the Sanhedrin, =93chief priests, scribes and elders=94 (14:43). = The arrest was=20 the end result of a long process, set in motion in Mk 3:6, where, = however,=20 the protagonists are different: there they are the Pharisees who = have=20 joined the Herodians to plot against Jesus. A significant fact: it = is in=20 the first prediction of the passion that =93the elders, chief = priests and=20 scribes=94 appear together for the first time (8:31). In 11:18 = =93the chief=20 priests and the scribes=94 search for a way to eliminate Jesus. = The three=20 categories meet in 11:27, to put Jesus through an interrogation. = Jesus=20 recounts for them the parable of the murderous tenants; their = reaction is=20 =93to look for a way to arrest him=94 (12:12). In 14:1, their = intention is to=20 apprehend him and =93to put him to death=94. The betrayal of Jesus = offers them=20 a suitable opportunity (14:10-11). The arrest, followed by = condemnation=20 and death, is therefore the work of the nation's ruling class at = that=20 time. Mark regularly opposes the attitude of the leaders to that = of =93the=20 crowd=94 or =93the people=94, who are favourably disposed to = Jesus. Three times=20 the evangelist notes that in their attempts 321 to have = Jesus=20 killed, the authorities were inhibited by fear of the people's = reaction.=20 Nevertheless, at the end of the trial before Pilate, the chief = priests=20 succeeded in sufficiently inciting the attendant crowd to make = them choose=20 Barabbas (15:11) in preference to Jesus (15:13). The final = decision of=20 Pilate, powerless to calm the crowd, is to =93satisfy=94 them, = which, for=20 Jesus, means crucifixion (15:15). This merely incidental crowd = certainly=20 cannot be confused with the Jewish people of that time, and even = less with=20 the Jews of every age. It should be said that they represent = rather the=20 sinful world (Mk 14:41) of which we are all a part.

It is the Sanhedrin that Mark holds guilty of = having=20 =93condemned=94 Jesus (10:33; 14:64). About Pilate, Mark declines = to say he=20 condemned Jesus, but that, having no reason to accuse him (15:14), = he=20 handed him over to be put to death (15:15), something that makes = Pilate=20 even more culpable. The reason for the Sanhedrin's condemnation is = that=20 Jesus had uttered a =93blasphemy=94 in his affirmative and = circumstantial=20 response to the High Priest's question whether he was =93the = Christ, the Son=20 of the Blessed One=94 (14:61-64). In this way Mark reveals the = most dramatic=20 point of rupture between the Jewish authorities and the person of = Christ,=20 a matter that continues to be the most serious point of division = between=20 Judaism and Christianity. For Christians, Jesus' response is not=20 blasphemy, but the very truth manifested as such by his = resurrection. To=20 the Jewish community, Christians are wrong to affirm the divine = sonship of=20 Christ in a way that gives grave offence to God. However painful = it be,=20 this fundamental disagreement must not degenerate into mutual = hostility,=20 or allow the existence of a rich common patrimony to be forgotten, = a=20 heritage which includes faith in the one God.

Conclusion. Any interpretation of Mark's = Gospel that=20 attempts to pin responsibility for Jesus' death on the Jewish = people, is=20 erroneous. Such an interpretation, which has had disastrous = consequences=20 throughout history, does not correspond at all to the evangelist's = perspective, which, as we have said, repeatedly opposes the = attitude of=20 the people or the crowd to that of the authorities hostile to = Jesus.=20 Furthermore, it is forgotten that the disciples were also part of = the=20 Jewish people. It is a question then of an improper transfer of=20 responsibility, of the sort that is often encountered in human=20 history. 322

Rather, it is well to recall that the passion of = Jesus is=20 part of God's mysterious plan, a plan of salvation, for Jesus came = =93to=20 serve and to give his life as a ransom for many=94 (10:45), and = has made of=20 the blood that he shed a =93blood of the covenant=94 (14:24).

3.=20 The Gospel according to Luke and the Acts of the = Apostles

73. Addressed to the =93most excellent = Theophilus=94 to complete=20 his Christian instruction (Lk 1:3-4; Ac 1:1), the Gospel of Luke = and the=20 book of Acts are writings very open to universalism and, at the = same time,=20 very well disposed towards Israel.

The names =93Israel=94, =93the Jews=94, =93the = people=94

The positive attitude to =93Israel=94 is seen = immediately in the=20 infancy narratives, where the name appears seven times. It is = found only=20 five times in the rest of the Gospel, in much less positive = contexts. The=20 name of the Jews appears only five times, three of which occur in = the=20 title =93King of the Jews=94 given to Jesus in the passion = narrative. More=20 significant is the use of the word =93people=94 which occurs = thirty six times=20 in the Gospel (as against twice in Mark's Gospel), usually in a = favourable=20 light, even at the end of the Passion narrative. = 323

In Acts, there is a positive outlook from the = beginning,=20 because the apostles announce the resurrection of Christ and the=20 forgiveness of sins for =93the whole house of Israel=94 (2:36), = and they=20 attract numerous followers (2:41; 4:4). The name Israel occurs = fourteen=20 times in the first part of Acts (Ac 1:6-13:24), and a fifteenth = time at=20 the end (28:20). With forty eight occurances the word =93people=94 = is much=20 more frequent; =93the people=94 are well disposed at first to the = Christian=20 community (2:47; 5:26), in the end they follow is the example of = their=20 leaders and turn hostile towards it (12:4,11), to the extent of = seeking=20 the death of Paul, in particular (21:30-31). Paul insists on = saying that=20 he =93has done nothing against the people=94 (28:17). The same = evolution is=20 reflected in the use of the word =93Jews=94 (79 times).On the day = of Pentecost=20 (2:5), the Jews whom Peter addresses and respectfully calls by = that name=20 (2:14), are summoned to faith in the risen Christ and adhere to = him in=20 great numbers. At the start, the Word is addressed exclusively to = them=20 (11:19). But very quickly, especially after Stephen's martyrdom, = they=20 become persecutors. The putting to death of James by Herod Antipas = was an=20 event that pleased them (12:2-3), and their =93anticipation=94 was = that the=20 same fate could be waiting for Peter (12:11). Before his = conversion, Paul=20 was a relentless persecutor (8:3; cf. Ga 1:13); but after = conversion, from=20 persecutor he became the persecuted: already at Damascus =93the = Jews plotted=20 to kill him=94 (9:23). Nevertheless, Paul continues to preach = Christ =93in the=20 synagogues of the Jews=94 (13:5; 14:1) and brings to the faith = =93a great=20 multitude of Jews and Greeks=94 (14:1), but this success provokes = the=20 hostile reaction of the =93unbelieving Jews=94 (14:2). The same = treatment is=20 frequently repeated, in various ways, right up to Paul's arrest in = Jerusalem, incited by =93the Jews of the province of Asia=94 = (21:27). But Paul=20 continues to proclaim with pride: =93I am a Jew=94 (22:3). He = suffers the=20 hostility of the Jews, but does not reciprocate.

The Gospel narrative

74. The infancy narrative creates an atmosphere = very=20 favourably disposed to the Jewish people. The announcements of=20 extraordinary births reveal =93Israel=94 (1:68) and = =93Jerusalem=94 (2:38) as=20 beneficiaries of salvation in fulfilment of an economy rooted in = the=20 people's history. The result is =93a great joy for all the = people=94 (2:10),=20 =93redemption=94 (1:68-69), =93salvation=94 (2:30-31), =93glory = for your people=94=20 (2:32). This good news is well received. But a future negative = reaction to=20 God's gift is glimpsed, for Simeon predicts to Mary that her Son = will=20 become a =93sign of contradiction=94 and foretells that =93a = fall=94 will precede=20 =93the rising up=94 (or: the resurrection) =93of many in Israel=94 = (2:34). Thus he=20 opens up a deep perspective in which the Saviour is at grips with = hostile=20 forces. A touch of universalism, inspired by Second Isaiah (42:6; = 49:6),=20 joins the =93light of revelation to the nations=94 to the =93glory = of your=20 people Israel=94 (2:32), a conjoining which clearly shows that = universalism=20 does not mean being anti-Jewish.

In the rest of the Gospel, Luke inserts further = touches of=20 universalism: first in relation to the preaching of John the = Baptist (3:6;=20 cf. Is 40:5), and then by tracing the genealogy of Jesus back to = Adam=20 (3:38). However, the first episode of Jesus' ministry at Nazareth = at once=20 shows that universalism will create problems. Jesus appeals to his = fellow=20 townspeople to renounce a possessive attitude to his miracles and = accept=20 that these gifts are also for the benefit of foreigners (4:23-27). = Their=20 resentful reaction is violent; rejection and attempted murder = (4:28-29).=20 Thus Luke clarifies in advance what the repeated reaction of Jews = will be=20 to Paul's success among the Gentiles. The Jews violently oppose a=20 preaching that sweeps away their privileges as the chosen = people.=20 324 Instead of opening out to the universalism of Second = Isaiah,=20 they follow Baruch's counsel not to share their privileges with = strangers=20 (Ba 4:3). Other Jews resist that temptation and generously give = themselves=20 to the service of evangelisation (Ac 18:24-26).

Luke reports gospel traditions depicting Jesus in = conflict=20 with the scribes and Pharisees (Lk 5:17-6:11). In 6:11, however, = he plays=20 down the hostility of those adversaries by not attributing to them = a=20 murderous intention from the beginning, unlike Mk 3:6. Luke's = polemical=20 discourse against the Pharisees (11:42-44), later extended to = include the=20 =93lawyers=94 (11:46-52) is considerably shorter than Mt 23:2-39. = The parable=20 of the Good Samaritan is an instruction on the universality of = love in=20 reply to a lawyer's question (Lk 10:29,36-37). This puts the = Jewish priest=20 and Levite in a bad light, while proposing a Samaritan as a model = (cf.=20 also 17:12-19). The parables of mercy (15:4-32), addressed to the=20 Pharisees and scribes, also urge an openness of heart. The parable = of the=20 merciful father (15:11-32) who invites the elder son to open his = heart to=20 the prodigal, does not directly apply to relations between Jews = and=20 Gentiles, although this application is often made (the elder son=20 represents observant Jews who are less open to accepting pagans = whom they=20 consider to be sinners). Luke's larger context, nevertheless, = makes this=20 application possible because of his insistence on = universalism.

The parable of the coins (19:11-27) has some very=20 significant special features. There is the pretender to royalty = who=20 suffers hostility from his fellow citizens. He must go to a = foreign=20 country to be invested with royal power. On his return, he has his = opponents executed. This parable, together with that of the = murderous=20 vineyard tenants (20:9-19), is a warning by Jesus of the = consequences of=20 rejecting him. Other passages in Luke's Gospel expressing Jesus' = pain at=20 the prospect of these tragic consequences, complete the picture: = he weeps=20 over Jerusalem (19:41-44) and he disregards his own sufferings to=20 concentrate on the misfortune of the women and children of that = city=20 (23:28-31).

Luke's passion narrative is not particularly = severe on the=20 Jewish authorities. During Jesus' appearance before =93the = assembly of the=20 elders of the people, chief priests and scribes=94 (22:66-71), = Luke spares=20 Jesus from confrontation with the High Priest, the accusation of = blasphemy=20 and condemnation, all of which serve to play down the culpability = of=20 Jesus' enemies. They bring accusations of a political order before = Pilate=20 (23:2). Pilate declares three times that Jesus is innocent = (23:4,14,22),=20 but intends to =93give him a lesson=94 (23:16,22) by having him = flogged, and=20 finally succumbs to the growing pressure of the mob (23:23-25) = that=20 includes =93chief priests, leaders of the people=94 (23:13). In = the events=20 that follow, the =93leaders=94 remain hostile (23:35), while the = people are=20 more favourably disposed towards Jesus (23:27,45,48), just as they = were=20 during his public life, as we have already noted. Jesus prays for = his=20 executioners whom he generously excuses, =93for they do not know = what they=20 are doing=94 (23:34).

In the name of the risen Jesus = =93repentance and=20 forgiveness of sins=94 is to be =93proclaimed to all the = nations=94 (24:47).=20 This universalism has no polemical connotation, for the phrase = emphasises=20 that this preaching must =93begin from Jerusalem=94. The = perspective=20 corresponds to Simeon's vision of messianic salvation, prepared by = God as=20 =93a light of revelation to the Gentiles and for glory to your = people=20 Israel=94 (2:30-32).

Therefore, what the Third Gospel transmits to Acts = is then=20 substantially favourable to the Jewish people. The forces of evil = have had=20 their =93hour=94. =93Chief priests, captains of the Temple guard = and elders=94=20 have been their instruments (22:52-53). But they have not = prevailed. God's=20 plan is fulfilled in accordance with the Scriptures = (24:25-27,44-47), and=20 it is a merciful plan for the salvation of all.

The Acts of the Apostles

75. The beginning of Acts depicts Christ's = apostles passing=20 from a narrow perspective, the establishment of the kingdom for = Israel (Ac=20 1:6), to a universal one of witness =93to the ends of the earth=94 = (1:8). The=20 Pentecost episode, curiously enough, sympathetically places Jews = in this=20 universal perspective: =93There were devout Jews from every nation = under=20 heaven living in Jerusalem=94 (2:5). These Jews are the first = recipients of=20 the apostolic preaching, symbolising at the same time the = universal=20 destination of the Gospel. Luke suggests as well, more than once, = that far=20 from being mutually exclusive, Judaism and universalism go = together.

The kerygmatic or missionary discourses preach the = mystery=20 of Jesus by emphasising the strong contrast between the human = cruelty=20 which put Jesus to death and the liberating intervention of God = who raised=20 him up. =93Israel's=94 sin was to have =93put to death the Prince = of Life=94=20 (3:15). This sin, which is principally that of the =93leaders of = the people=94=20 (4:8-10) or the =93Sanhedrin=94 (5:27:30), is recalled only as a = basis for an=20 appeal to conversion and faith. Besides, Peter attenuates the = culpability,=20 not only of the =93Israelites=94 but even of their =93leaders=94 = by saying that=20 they acted =93out of ignorance=94 (3:17). Such forbearance is = impressive. It=20 corresponds to the teaching and attitude of Jesus (Lk 6:36-37; = 23:34).

Nevertheless, the Christian preaching quickly = stirs up=20 opposition on the part of the Jewish authorities. The Sadduccees = oppose=20 the apostles' =93proclaiming that in Jesus there is the = resurrection of the=20 dead=94 (Ac 4:2) in which they do not believe (Lk 20:27). But a = very=20 influential Pharisee, Gamaliel, takes the side of the apostles in = thinking=20 that their enterprise possibly =93comes from God=94 (Ac 5:39). = Then opposition=20 decreases for a while. It flares up again in Hellenistic = synagogues when=20 Stephen, himself a Hellenistic Jew, works =93great wonders and = signs among=20 the people=94 (6:8-15). At the end of his discourse before members = of the=20 Sanhedrin, Stephen has recourse to the invective of the prophets = (7:51).=20 He is stoned. Following Jesus' example, he prays to the Lord that = =93this=20 sin be not held against them=94 (7:60; cf. Lk 23:34). =93That day = a severe=20 persecution began against the Church in Jerusalem=94 (Ac 8:1). = =93Saul=94=20 zealously took part in it (8:3; 9:13).

After his conversion and during all his missionary = journeys,=20 he himself =97 as we have already noted =97 experiences the = opposition of his=20 fellow countrymen, sparked by the success of his universalist = preaching.=20 This is particularly evident immediately after his arrest in = Jerusalem.=20 When he spoke =93in the Hebrew language=94, =93the assembly of = people=94 (21:36)=20 first heard him calmly (22:2), but from the moment he mentions his = being=20 sent =93to the nations=94, they get terribly agitated and demand = his death=20 (22:21-22).

Acts ends on a surprising, but all the more = significant,=20 note. Shortly after his arrival in Rome, Paul =93called together = the local=20 leaders of the Jews=94 (28:17), a unique gesture. He wants =93to = convince them=20 about Jesus both from the Law of Moses and the prophets=94 = (28:23). What he=20 wished to obtain was not individual adherents, but a collective = decision=20 involving the whole Jewish community. After his unsuccessful = attempt, he=20 repeats the very harsh words of Isaiah concerning the hardness of = =93this=20 people=94 (28:25-27; Is 6:9-10), and announces instead the docile = acceptance=20 that the nations will give to the salvation offered by God = (28:28). In=20 this ending, which gives rise to interminable discussion, Luke = apparently=20 wishes to accept the undeniable fact that, in the end, the Jewish = people=20 collectively did not accept the Gospel of Christ. At the same = time, Luke=20 wishes to reply to an objection that could be made against the = Christian=20 faith, by showing that this situation had already been foreseen in = the=20 Scriptures.

Conclusion

In Luke's oeuvre, there is no doubt that there is = a profound=20 respect for the Jewish reality insofar as it has a primary role in = the=20 divine plan of salvation. Nevertheless, in the course of the = narrative,=20 tensions become obvious. Luke tones down the polemics encountered = in the=20 other Synoptics. But he is unable, it seems, =97 and does not wish = =97 to hide=20 the fact that Jesus suffered fierce opposition from the leaders of = his=20 people and that, as a result, the apostolic preaching finds itself = in an=20 analogous situation. If a sober recounting of this undeniable = Jewish=20 opposition amounts to anti-Judaism, then Luke could be accused of = it. But=20 it is obvious that this way of looking at it is to be rejected.=20 Anti-Judaism consists rather of cursing and hating the = persecutors, and=20 their people as a whole. The Gospel message, on the contrary, = invites=20 Christians to bless those who curse them, to do good to those who = hate=20 them, and to pray for those who persecute them (Lk 6:27-28), = following the=20 example of Jesus (23:34) and of the first Christian martyr (Ac = 7:60). This=20 is one of the basic lessons of Luke's work. It is regrettable that = in the=20 course of the centuries following it has not been more faithfully=20 followed.

4. = The Gospel=20 according to John

76. About the Jews, the Fourth Gospel has a very = positive=20 statement, made by Jesus himself in the dialogue with the = Samaritan woman:=20 =93Salvation comes from the Jews=94 (Jn 4:22). 325 = Elsewhere, to=20 the statement of the High Priest Caiaphas who said that it was=20 =93advantageous=94 =93to have one man die for the people=94, the = evangelist sees a=20 meaning in the word inspired by God and emphasises that =93Jesus = was about=20 to die for the nation=94, adding =93not for the nation only, but = to gather=20 into one the dispersed children of God=94 (Jn 11:49-52). The = evangelist=20 betrays a vast knowledge of Judaism, its feasts, its Scriptures. = The value=20 of the Jewish patrimony is clearly acknowledged: Abraham saw = Jesus' day=20 and was glad (8:56); the Law is a gift given through Moses as = intermediary=20 (1:17); =93the Scripture cannot be annulled=94 (10:35); Jesus is = the one=20 =93about whom Moses in the Law and also the prophets wrote=94 = (1:45); he is =93a=20 Jew=94 (4:9) and =93King of Israel=94 (1:49) or =93King of the = Jews=94 (19:19-22).=20 There is no serious reason to doubt that the evangelist was Jewish = and=20 that the basic context for the composition of the Gospel was = relations=20 with the Jews.

The word =93Jews=94 is found 71 times in the = Fourth Gospel,=20 usually in the plural, three times in the singular (3:25; 4:9; = 18:35). It=20 is applied especially to =93Jesus=94 (4:9). The name = =93Israelite=94 only appears=20 once; it is a title of honour (1:47). A certain number of Jews are = well=20 disposed to Jesus. One such is Nicodemus, a =93leader of the = Jews=94 (3:1) who=20 saw Jesus as a teacher come from God (3:2), defends him before his = Pharisee colleagues (7:50-51) and, after his death on the cross, = takes=20 charge of his burial (19:39). At the end, =93many of the = leaders=94 believed=20 in Jesus, but lacked courage to declare themselves as his = disciples=20 (12:42). The evangelist frequently reports that =93many=94 people = came to=20 believe in Jesus. 326 The context shows that it is the = Jews,=20 except in 4:39,41; the evangelist is sometimes precise, though = rarely=20 sufficiently so (8:31; 11:45; 12:11).

Nonetheless, =93the Jews=94 are often hostile to = Jesus. Their=20 opposition begins with the curing of the paralytic on the sabbath = day=20 (5:16). It intensifies when Jesus makes himself =93equal to = God=94; they try=20 from then on to have him put to death (5:18). Later, like the High = Priest=20 during the trial of Jesus in Mt 26:65 and Mk 14:64, they accuse = him of=20 =93blasphemy=94 and try to punish him accordingly by stoning = (10:31-33). It=20 has been noted with good reason that much of the Fourth Gospel = anticipates=20 the trial of Jesus and gives him the opportunity to defend himself = and=20 accuse his accusers. These are often called =93the Jews=94 without = further=20 precision, with the result that an unfavourable judgement is = associated=20 with that name. But there is no question here of anti-Jewish = sentiment,=20 since =97 as we have already noted =97 the Gospel recognises that = =93salvation=20 comes from the Jews=94 (4:22). This manner of speaking only = reflects the=20 clear separation that existed between the Christian and Jewish=20 communities.

A more serious accusation made by Jesus against = =93the Jews=94=20 is that of having the devil for a father (8:44); it should be = noted that=20 this accusation is not made against the Jews insofar as they are = Jews,=20 but, on the contrary, insofar as they are not true Jews, since = they=20 entertain murderous intentions (8:37), inspired by the devil, who = is =93a=20 murderer from the beginning=94 (8:44). The only concern here is a = small=20 number of Jesus' contemporaries, paradoxically, of =93Jews who had = believed=20 in him=94 (8:31). By accusing them openly, the Fourth Gospel puts = other Jews=20 on guard against the temptation to similar murderous thoughts.

77. By translating =93the Jews=94 as =93the = Judeans=94, an attempt=20 has been made to eliminate the tensions that the Fourth Gospel can = provoke=20 between Christians and Jews. The contrast then would not be = between the=20 Jews and Jesus' disciples, but between the inhabitants of Judea, = presented=20 as hostile to Jesus, and those of Galilee, presented as flocking = to their=20 prophet. Contempt by Judeans for Galileans is certainly expressed = in the=20 Gospel (7:52), but the evangelist did not draw the lines of = demarcation=20 between faith and refusal to believe along geographical lines, he=20 distinguishes Galilean Jews who reject Jesus' teaching as hoi = Ioudaioi=20 (6:41,52).

Another interpretation of =93the Jews=94 = identifies them with=20 =93the world=94 based on affirmations which express a comparison = (8:23) or=20 parallelism between them. 327 But the world of sinners, = by all=20 accounts, extends beyond Jews who are hostile to Jesus.

It has also been noted that in many Gospel = passages =93the=20 Jews=94 referred to are the Jewish authorities (chief priests, = members of=20 the Sanhedrin) or sometimes the Pharisees. A comparison between = 18:3 and=20 18:12 points in this direction. In the passion narrative, John = frequently=20 mentions =93the Jews=94 where the Synoptics speak of Jewish = authorities. But=20 this observation holds good only for a certain restricted number = of=20 passages and such precision cannot be introduced into a = translation of the=20 Gospel without being unfaithful to the text. These are echoes of=20 opposition to Christian communities, not only on the part of the = Jewish=20 authorities, but from the vast majority of Jews, in solidarity = with their=20 leaders (cf. Ac 28:22). Historically, it can be said that only a = minority=20 of Jews contemporaneous with Jesus were hostile to him, that a = smaller=20 number were responsible for handing him over to the Roman = authorities; and=20 that fewer still wanted him killed, undoubtedly for religious = reasons that=20 seemed important to them. 328 But these succeeded in = provoking=20 a general demonstration in favour of Barabbas and against = Jesus,=20 329 which permitted the evangelist to use a general = expression,=20 anticipating a later evolution.

At times in the Gospel the separation of Jesus' = disciples=20 from =93the Jews=94 is evident in the expulsion from the synagogue = imposed on=20 Jews who believed in Jesus. 330 It is possible that the = Jews in=20 the Johannine communities experienced this treatment, since they = would be=20 considered unfaithful to Jewish monotheistic faith (which, in = fact, was=20 not at all the case, since Jesus said: =93I and the Father are = one=94:=20 10:30). The result was that it became almost standard to use = =93the Jews=94 to=20 designate those who kept this name for themselves alone, in their=20 opposition to the Christian faith.

78. Conclusion. The ministry of Jesus = stirred up the=20 mounting opposition on the part of the Jewish authorities, who, = finally,=20 decided to hand Jesus over to the Roman authorities to have him = put to=20 death. But he arose alive to give true life to all who believe in = him. The=20 Fourth Gospel recalls these events, and re-evaluates them in the = light of=20 the experience of the Johannine communities that had encountered=20 opposition from the Jewish communities.

The actions and words of Jesus show that he had a = very close=20 filial relationship with God that was unique of its kind. The = apostolic=20 catechesis progressively deepened its understanding of this = relationship.=20 In the Johannine communities, there was an insistence on the close = relationship between Son and Father and on the divinity of Jesus, = who is=20 =93the Christ, the Son of God=94 (20:31) in a transcendent sense. = This=20 teaching provoked opposition from the synagogue leaders, followed = by the=20 whole Jewish community. Christians were expelled from the = synagogues=20 (16:2) and were exposed, at the same time, to harassment by the = Roman=20 authorities, since they no longer enjoyed the franchise granted to = Jews.

The polemic escalated on both sides. The Jews = accused Jesus=20 of being a sinner (9:24), a blasphemer (10:33) and of having a = devil.=20 331 Those who believed in him were considered ignorant or = accursed=20 (7:49). On the Christian side, Jews were accused of disobedience = to God's=20 word (5:38), resisting his love (5:42) and pursuing vainglory = (5:44).

Christians, no longer able to participate in = Jewish cultic=20 life, became more aware of the plenitude they had received from = the Word=20 made flesh (1:16). The risen Christ is the source of living water=20 (7:37-38), light of the world (8:12), bread of life (6:35), and = new Temple=20 (2:19-22). Having loved his own to the end (13:1), he gave them = his new=20 commandment of love (13:34). Everything must be done to stir up = faith in=20 him, and, through faith, life (20:31). In the Gospel, polemics are = secondary. What is of the greatest importance is the revelation of = the=20 =93gift of God=94 (4:10; 3:16), which is offered to all in Jesus = Christ,=20 especially to those =93who have pierced him=94 (19:37).

5. = Conclusion

The Gospels reveal that the fulfilment of God's = plan=20 necessarily brought with it a confrontation with evil, which must = be=20 eradicated from the human heart. This confrontation puts Jesus at = odds=20 with the leaders of his people, just like the ancient prophets. = Already in=20 the Old Testament, the people of God were seen under two = antithetical=20 aspects: on the one hand, as a people called to be perfectly = united to=20 God; and on the other, as a sinful people. These two aspects could = not=20 fail to manifest themselves during Jesus' ministry. During the = Passion,=20 the negative aspect seemed to prevail, even among the Twelve. But = the=20 resurrection showed that, in reality, the love of God was = victorious and=20 obtained for all the pardon of sin and a new life.

 

C.=20 The Jews in the Pauline Letters and other New Testament=20 Writings

79. The Pauline Letters will be considered in = accordance=20 with the most commonly accepted groupings: first, seven Letters = generally=20 recognised as authentic (Rm, 1-2 Co, Ga, Ph, I Th, Phm), then = Ephesians=20 and Colossians, the Pastorals (1-2 Tm, Tt). Finally, the Letter to = the=20 Hebrews, the Letters of Peter, James and Jude, and the Book of = Revelation=20 will be looked at.

1.=20 Jews in the undisputed Pauline Letters

Personally, Paul continued to be proud of his = Jewish origin=20 (Rm 11:1). Referring to the time preceding his conversion, he = says: =93I=20 advanced in Judaism beyond many among my people of the same age, = for I was=20 far more zealous for the traditions of my ancestors=94 (Ga 1:14). = Having=20 become an apostle of Christ, he says of his adversaries: =93Are = they=20 Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. Are they = descendants of=20 Abraham? So am I=94 (2 Co 11:22). Still, he can relativise all = these=20 advantages by saying: =93These I have come to regard as loss = because of=20 Christ=94 (Ph 3:7).

Nonetheless, he continues to think and reason like = a Jew.=20 His thought is visibly permeated by Jewish ideas. In his writings, = as was=20 mentioned above, we find not only continual references to the Old=20 Testament, but many traces of Jewish traditions as well. = Furthermore, Paul=20 often uses rabbinic techniques of exegesis and argumentation (cf. = I. D. 3,=20 no. 14).

Paul's ties to Judaism are also seen in his moral = teaching.=20 In spite of his opposition to the pretentions of those who kept = the Law,=20 he himself includes a precept of the Law, Lv 19:18 (=93You shall = love your=20 neighbour as yourself=94) to sum up the whole of the moral = life.=20 332 Summing up the Law in one precept is typically Jewish, = as the=20 well-known anecdote about Rabbi Hillel and Rabbi Shammai, Jesus'=20 contemporaries, demonstrates. 333

What attitude did the apostle adopt towards the = Jews? In=20 principle, a positive one. He calls them: =93My brothers, my = kindred=20 according to the flesh=94 (Rm 9:3). Convinced that the Gospel of = Christ is=20 =93the power of God for the salvation of everyone who has faith, = to the Jews=20 first=94 (Rm 1:16), he desired to transmit the faith to them and = spared no=20 effort to that end. He could say: =93To the Jews I became a Jew, = in order to=20 win Jews=94 (1 Co 9:20) and even: =93To those under the Law I = became as one=20 under the Law =97 though I myself am not under the Law =97 so that = I might win=20 those under the Law=94 (1 Co 9:20). Likewise in his apostolate to = the=20 Gentiles, he endeavoured to be indirectly useful to his fellow = Jews, =93in=20 the hope of saving some of them=94 (Rm 11:14). For this, he relied = on=20 emulation (11:11,14): that the sight of the marvellous spiritual=20 enrichment that faith in Christ Jesus gave to pagan converts, = would stir=20 up the desire among the Jews not to be outdone, and would lead = them also=20 to be receptive to the faith.

The resistance mounted by the majority of Jews to = the=20 Christian preaching produced in Paul's heart =93great sorrow and = unceasing=20 anguish=94 (Rm 9:2), clear evidence of his great affection for = them. He said=20 that he himself was willing to accept on their behalf the greatest = and=20 most inconceivable sacrifice, to be branded =93accursed=94, = separated from=20 Christ (9:3). His afflictions and suffering forced him to search = for a=20 solution: in three lengthy chapters (Rm 9-11), he goes to the = heart of the=20 problem, or rather the mystery, of Israel's place in God's plan, = in the=20 light of Christ and of the Scriptures, without giving up until he = is able=20 to conclude: =93and so all Israel will be saved=94 (Rm 11:26). = These three=20 chapters in the Letter to the Romans constitute the most profound=20 reflection in the whole of the New Testament on Jews who do not = believe in=20 Jesus. Paul expressed there his most mature reflections.

The solution he proposed is based on the = Scriptures which,=20 in certain places, promised salvation only to a =93remnant=94 of = Israel.=20 334 In this phase of salvation history then, there is only a = =93remnant=94 of Israelites who believe in Christ Jesus, but this = situation is=20 not definitive. Paul observes that, from now on, the presence of = the=20 =93remnant=94 proves that God has not =93rejected his people=94 = (11:1). This=20 people continues to be =93holy=94, that is, in close relationship = with God. It=20 is holy because it comes from a holy root, the ancestors, and = because=20 their =93first fruits=94 have been blessed (11:16). Paul does not = make it=20 clear whether by =93first fruits=94 he means Israel's ancestors, = or the=20 =93remnant=94 sanctified by faith and baptism. He exploits the = agricultural=20 metaphor of the tree when he speaks of branches being cut off and = grafted=20 (11:17-24). It is understood that the cut off branches are = Israelites who=20 have refused to believe in Christ Jesus and that those grafted on = are=20 Gentile Christians. To these =97 as we have already noted =97 Paul = preaches=20 humility: =93It is not you that support the root, but the root = that supports=20 you=94 (11:18). To the branches that have been cut off, Paul opens = up a=20 positive perspective: =93God has the power to graft them on = again=94 (11:23);=20 this would be easier than in the case of the Gentiles, since it is = =93their=20 own olive tree=94 (11:24). In the final analysis, God's plan for = Israel is=20 entirely positive: =93their stumbling means riches for the = world=94, =93how much=20 more will their full inclusion mean?=94 (11:12). They are assured = of a=20 covenant of mercy by God (11:27,31).

80. In the years preceding the writing of the = Letter to the=20 Romans, because he experienced fierce opposition from many of his=20 =93relatives according to the flesh=94, Paul occasionally = expressed strong=20 defensive reactions. On the opposition of the Jews, Paul wrote: = =93From the=20 Jews I received forty lashes minus one=94 (cf. Dt 25:3). A little = later he=20 notes what he must do in the face of danger from brothers of his = race as=20 well as from Gentiles (2 Co 11:24,26). The recalling of these sad=20 experiences elicits no comment from Paul. He is ready to = =93participate in=20 the sufferings of Christ=94 (Ph 3:10). But what provokes an = animated=20 reaction are the obstacles placed by Jews in the way of his = apostolate to=20 the Gentiles. This is evident in a passage in the First Letter to = the=20 Thessalonians (2:14-16). These verses are so much at variance with = Paul's=20 habitual attitude towards the Jews that attempts have been made to = demonstrate that they are not from Paul, or to play down their = vehemence.=20 But the unanimous testimony of manuscripts renders their exclusion = impossible, and the tenor of the whole does not permit restriction = to the=20 inhabitants of Judea, as has been suggested. The final verse is = pungent:=20 =93God's wrath has overtaken them at last=94 (1 Th 2:16). One is = reminded of=20 Jeremiah's predictions 335 and of a phrase in 2 Ch = 36:16: =93The=20 wrath of the Lord against his people became so great that there = was no=20 remedy=94. These predicted the national catastrophe of 587 B.C.: = the siege=20 and capture of Jerusalem, the burning of the Temple, the = deportation. Paul=20 apparently foresees a catastrophe of similar proportions. It is = worth=20 noting, though, that the events of 587 were not the end. The Lord = then had=20 pity on his people. It follows that the terrible prediction of = Paul =97 one=20 which unfortunately came to pass =97 did not exclude a subsequent=20 reconciliation.

In 1 Th 2:14-16, in the context of sufferings = inflicted on=20 the Thessalonian Christians by their compatriots, Paul recalls = that the=20 churches in Judea had suffered the same fate at the hands of the = Jews, and=20 accuses them of a series of crimes: they =93killed the Lord Jesus = and the=20 prophets and also drove us out=94; then in the present tense: = =93they=20 displease God and are hostile to all men in their effort to keep = us from=20 speaking to the Gentiles so that they may be saved=94. It is clear = that the=20 last is more important to Paul than the two preceding negative = appraisals.=20 Because the Jews are an obstacle to the Christian preaching = addressed to=20 the Gentiles, they =93oppose all men=94 336 and =93they = displease=20 God=94. In opposing the Christian preaching, the Jews of Paul's = time show=20 themselves in solidarity with the ancestors who killed the = prophets, and=20 with their own brothers who demanded that Jesus be condemned to = death. The=20 formulae used by Paul seem to suggest that the death of Jesus is = to be=20 attributed to all Jews indiscriminately without distinction: = anti-Jewish=20 interpreters understand them in this sense. Put in context, = however, they=20 refer only to Jews who were opposed to preaching to the pagans and = therefore opposed their salvation. When the opposition ceases, the = accusation does as well.

Another polemical passage is found in Ph 3:2-3: = =93Beware of=20 the dogs, beware of the evil workers, beware of those who mutilate = the=20 flesh (katatom)! For it is we who are the circumcision=20 (peritom)=94. Whom has the apostle in mind here? Since the = reference=20 is not explicit enough, it does not allow us any certainty, but = the=20 interpretation that Jews are envisaged, can at least be excluded.=20 According to a current opinion, Paul would have in mind judaising=20 Christians, who wished to impose circumcision on Christians from = the=20 =93nations=94. Paul aggressively applies to them a term of = contempt, =93dogs=94, a=20 metaphor for the ritual impurity that the Jews sometimes = attributed to the=20 Gentiles (Mt 15:26). He downgrades circumcision of the flesh by = ironically=20 calling it =93mutilation=94 (cf. Ga 5:12), and opposes to it a = spiritual=20 circumcision, similar to Deuteronomy's circumcision of the = heart.=20 337 The context, in this case, would have been the = controversy about=20 Jewish observances within the Christian churches, as in the Letter = to the=20 Galatians. It would probably be better to see a reference, as in = Rv 22:15,=20 to the pagan context in which the Philippians lived, and to assume = that=20 Paul is referring here to pagan customs: sexual perversions, = immoral acts,=20 cultic mutilations associated with orgiastic cults. = 338

81. On the matter of Abraham's descendants, Paul = makes a=20 distinction =97 as we have already indicated =97 between the = =93children of the=20 promise like Isaac=94, who are also children =93according to the = Spirit=94, and=20 children =93according to the flesh=94. 339 It is not = enough to be=20 =93children of the flesh=94 in order to be =93children of God=94 = (Rm 9:8), for the=20 essential condition is commitment to him whom =93God has sent... = so that we=20 might receive the adoption of sons=94 (Ga 4:4-5).

In another context, the apostle omits this = distinction, and=20 speaks of the Jews in general. He declares that they have the = privilege of=20 being the depositories of divine revelation (Rm 3:1-2). = Nevertheless, this=20 privilege has not exempted them from sin's dominion over them = (3:9-19),=20 hence it is still necessary to gain justification by faith in = Christ=20 rather than by the observance of the Law (3:20-22).

When he considers the situation of Jews who have = not=20 followed Christ, Paul insists on affirming his profound esteem for = them by=20 enumerating the marvellous gifts which they have received from = God: =93They=20 are Israelites, and to them belong the adoption, the glory, the = covenants,=20 the giving of the Law, the worship and the promises; to them = belong the=20 Patriarchs, and from them, according to the flesh, comes the = Messiah, who=20 is over all, God blessed forever. Amen=94 (Rm 9:4-5). = 340 Despite=20 the absence of verbs, it can scarcely be doubted that Paul wishes = to speak=20 of these gifts as still actually possessed (cf. 11:29), even if, = from his=20 viewpoint, possession of them is not sufficient, for they refuse = God's=20 most important gift, his Son, although physically he is one with = them.=20 Paul attests that =93they are zealous for God=94, adding: =93but = it is not=20 enlightened. For being ignorant of the righteousness that comes = from God,=20 and seeking to establish their own, they have not submitted to = God's=20 righteousness=94 (10:2-3). Nevertheless, God does not abandon = them. His plan=20 is to show them mercy. =93The hardening=94 which affects =93a part = of=94 Israel is=20 only provisional and has its usefulness for the time being = (11:25); it=20 will be followed by salvation (11:26). Paul sums up the situation = in an=20 antithetical phrase, followed by a positive affirmation:

=93As regards the Gospel they are enemies of God = for your=20 sake;
as regards election they are beloved, for the sake of = their=20 ancestors;
for the gifts and the calling of God are = irrevocable=94=20 (11:28-29).

Paul views the situation realistically. Between = Christ's=20 disciples and the Jews who do not believe in him, the relation is = one of=20 opposition. These Jews call the Christian faith into question; = they do not=20 accept that Jesus is their Messiah (Christ) and the Son of = God.=20 Christians cannot but contest the position of these Jews. But at a = level=20 deeper than opposition there exists from now on a loving = relationship that=20 is definitive; the other is only temporary.

2. = Jews in the=20 other Letters

82. The Letter to the Colossians contains = the word=20 =93Jew=94 only once, in a sentence that says, in the new man = =93there is no=20 longer Greek and Jew=94, adding as well a parallel expression: = =93circumcised=20 and uncircumcised=94; there is only Christ =93who is all and in = all=94 (Col=20 3:11). This phrase, which recalls the teaching of Ga 3:28 and Rm = 10:12,=20 denies any importance to being a Jew from the point of view of a=20 relationship with Christ. It passes no judgement on Jews, any more = than it=20 does on Greeks.

The value of cirumcision before the coming of = Christ is=20 indirectly affirmed, when the author recalls for the Colossians = that=20 formerly they were =93dead in trespasses and the uncircumcision of = [their]=20 flesh=94 (2:13). But the value of Jewish circumcision is eclipsed = by=20 =93circumcision in Christ=94, =93a circumcision not made with = hands, by putting=20 off the body of the flesh=94 (2:11); there is here an allusion to=20 Christians' participation in Christ's death through baptism (cf. = Rm=20 6:3-6). The result is that Jews who do not believe in Christ are = in an=20 unsatisfactory situation from a religious point of view; but this = is not=20 expressed.

The Letter to the Ephesians does not use = the word=20 =93Jew=94 even once. It mentions only once =93uncircumcision=94 = and=20 =93circumcision=94, in a phrase alluding to the contempt that Jews = have for=20 pagans. The latter were =93called =91the uncircumcision' by those = who are=20 called =91the circumcision'=94 (2:11). Elsewhere, in conformity = with the=20 teaching of the Letters to the Galatians and Romans, the author, = speaking=20 in the name of Jewish-Christians, describes in negative terms the=20 situation of Jews before their conversion: they were among the = =93sons of=20 disobedience=94 together with the pagans (2:2-3), and their = conduct served=20 =93the passions of [their] flesh=94; they were then =93by nature = children of=20 wrath, like everyone else=94 (2:3). However, another passage in = the Letter=20 indirectly gives a different image of the situation of the Jews, = this time=20 a positive image, by describing the sad lot of non-Jews who were = =93without=20 Christ, excluded from citizenship in Israel and foreigners to the=20 covenants of the promise, without hope and without God in the = world=94=20 (2:12). The privileges of the Jews are here recalled and greatly=20 appreciated.

The principal theme of the Letter is precisely an=20 enthusiastic affirmation that those privileges, brought to their=20 culmination by Christ's coming, are henceforth accessible to the = Gentiles,=20 who =93have become fellow heirs, members of the same body, and = sharers in=20 the promise in Christ Jesus=94 (3:6). The crucifixion of Christ is = understood as an event that has destroyed the wall of separation = erected=20 by the Law between Jews and Gentiles, and so has demolished the = hatred=20 between them (2;14). The perspective is one of perfectly = harmonious=20 relations. Christ is the peace between both, in such a way as to = create=20 from the two a unique new man, and to reconcile both with God in = one body=20 (2:15-16). The refusal of the Christian faith given by the = majority of=20 Jews is not mentioned. The atmosphere remains eirenic.

Concerned with the internal organisation of the = Christian=20 communities, the Pastoral Letters never speak of the Jews. = There is=20 a single allusion to =93those of the circumcison=94 (Ti 1:10), but = this refers=20 to Jewish-Christians belonging to the community. They are = criticised for=20 being, more so than other members of the community, =93rebellious = people,=20 idle talkers and deceivers=94. Besides, the putting on guard = against=20 =93endless genealogies=94 found in 1 Ti 1:10 and Ti 3:9, probably = refers to=20 Jewish speculations about Old Testament personages, =93Jewish = myths=94 (Ti=20 1;4).

Neither does the Letter to the Hebrews = mention =93the=20 Jews=94 or even =93the Hebrews=94! It does mention once =93the = sons of Israel=94, in=20 reference to the Exodus (Heb 11:22), and twice =93the people of = God=94.=20 341 It speaks of Jewish priests when it recalls =93those who = officiate=20 in the tent=94 (13:10), pointing out the distance that separates = them from=20 the Christian cult. On the positive side, it recalls Jesus' = connection=20 with =93the descendants of Abraham=94 (2:16) and the tribe of = Judah (7:14).=20 The author points out the deficiencies of Old Testament = institutions,=20 especially the sacrificial cult, but always basing himself on the = Old=20 Testament itself, whose value as divine revelation he always fully = recognises. With regard to the Israelites of the past, the = author's=20 appreciation is not one-sided, but corresponds faithfully to that = of the=20 Old Testament itself: that is, on the one hand, by quoting and = commenting=20 on Ps 95:7-11, he recalls the lack of faith of the generation of = the=20 Exodus, 342 but on the other hand, he paints a = magnificent=20 fresco of examples of faith given throughout the ages by Abraham = and his=20 descendants (11:8-38). Speaking of Christ's Passion, the Letter to = the=20 Hebrews makes no mention of the responsibility of the Jewish = authorities,=20 but simply says that Jesus endured strong opposition =93on the = part of=20 sinners=94. 343

The same holds for the First Letter of Peter, = which=20 evokes Christ's Passion by saying that =93the Lord=94 was = =93rejected by=20 men=94 (1 Pt 2:4) without further precision. The Letter = confers on=20 Christians the glorious titles of the Israelite people, = 344 but=20 without any polemical intent. It never mentions the Jews. The same = is true=20 for the Letter of James, the Second Letter of Peter and the Letter = of=20 Jude. These Letters are steeped in Jewish teaching, but do not = touch on=20 the relationship between the Christian Church and contemporary = Jews.

3. = Jews in=20 the Book of Revelation

83. A very favourable attitude towards the Jews is = evident=20 throughout the book, but especially in the mention of 144,000 = =93servants of=20 our God=94 marked =93on their foreheads=94 with the =93sign of the = living God=94 (Rv=20 7:2-4) coming from all the tribes of Israel which are enumerated = one by=20 one (a unique case in the New Testament: Rv 7:5-8). Revelation = reaches its=20 high point in its description of =93the new Jerusalem=94 (Rv 21:2) = with its=20 =93twelve gates=94 on which the names are inscribed =93which are = those of the=20 twelve tribes of Israel=94 (21:12), in parallel to =93the names of = the twelve=20 apostles of the Lamb=94, inscribed on the twelve foundations of = the city=20 (21:14).

Regarding the =93so-called Jews=94 mentioned in = two parallel=20 passages (2:9 and 3:9), the author rejects their pretensions and = calls=20 them a =93synagogue of Satan=94. In 2:9, these =93so-called = Jews=94 are accused of=20 defaming the Christian community of Smyrna. In 3:9, Christ = announces that=20 they will be compelled to pay homage to the Christians of = Philadelphia.=20 These passages suggest that Christians are denying the title of = Jew to the=20 Israelites who defame them, and range themselves on the side of = Satan,=20 =93the accuser of our brothers=94 (Rv 12:10). There is a then = positive=20 appreciation of =93Jew=94 as a title of honour, an honour that is = denied to a=20 synagogue which is actively hostile to Christians.

 

IV.
CONCLUSIONS

A. General = Conclusion

84. At the end of this exposition, necessarily all = too=20 brief, the main conclusion to be drawn is that the Jewish people = and their=20 Sacred Scriptures occupy a very important place in the Christian = Bible.=20 Indeed, the Jewish Sacred Scriptures constitute an essential part = of the=20 Christian Bible and are present, in a variety of ways, in the = other part=20 of the Christian Bible as well. Without the Old Testament, the New = Testament would be an incomprehensible book, a plant deprived of = its roots=20 and destined to dry up and wither.

The New Testament recognises the divine authority = of the=20 Jewish Scriptures and supports itself on this authority. When the = New=20 Testament speaks of the =93Scriptures=94 and refers to =93that = which is=20 written=94, it is to the Jewish Scriptures that it refers. It = affirms that=20 these Scriptures must of necessity be fulfilled, since they define = God's=20 plan which cannot fail to be realised, notwithstanding the = obstacles=20 encountered and the human resistance opposing it. To that the New=20 Testament adds that these Scriptures are indeed fulfilled in the = life of=20 Jesus, his Passion and resurrection, as well as in the foundation = of the=20 Church that is open to all the nations. All of these bind = Christians and=20 Jews closely together, for the foremost aspect of scriptural = fulfilment is=20 that of accord and continuity. This is fundamental. Inevitably, = fulfilment=20 brings discontinuity on certain points, because without it there = can be no=20 progress. This discontinuity is a source of disagreements between=20 Christians and Jews, no purpose is served by hiding the fact. But = it was=20 wrong, in times past, to unilaterally insist on it to the extent = of taking=20 no account of the fundamental continuity.

This continuity has deep roots and manifests = itself at many=20 levels. That is why in Christianity the link between Scripture and = Tradition is similar to that in Judaism. Jewish methods of = exegesis are=20 frequently employed in the New Testament. The Christian canon of = the Old=20 Testament owes its formation to the first century Jewish = Scriptures. To=20 properly interpret the New Testament, knowledge of the Judaism of = this=20 period is often necessary.

85. But it is especially in studying the great = themes of the=20 Old Testament and their continuation in the New which accounts for = the=20 impressive symbiosis that unites the two parts of the Christian = Bible and,=20 at the same time, the vigorous spiritual ties that unite the = Church of=20 Christ to the Jewish people. In both Testaments, it is the same = God who=20 enters into relationship with human beings and invites them to = live in=20 communion with him; the one God and the source of unity; God the = Creator=20 who continues to provide for the needs of his creatures, in = particular=20 those who are intelligent and free, and who are called to = recognise the=20 truth and to love; God especially is the Liberator and Saviour of = human=20 beings, because, although created in his image, they have fallen = through=20 sin into a pitiful slavery.

Since it is a project for inter-personal = relationships,=20 God's plan is realised in history. It is impossible to discover = what that=20 plan is by philosophical speculation on the human being in = general. God=20 reveals this plan by unforeseeable initiatives, in particular, by = the call=20 addressed to an individual chosen from all the rest of humanity, = Abraham=20 (Gn 12:1-3), and by guiding the destiny of this person and his = posterity,=20 the people of Israel (Ex 3:10). A central Old Testament theme (Dt = 7:6-8),=20 Israel's election continues to be of fundamental importance in the = New=20 Testament. Far from calling it into question, the birth of Jesus = confirms=20 it in the most spectacular manner. Jesus is =93son of David, son = of Abraham=94=20 (Mt 1:1). He comes =93to save his people from their sins=94 = (1:21). He is the=20 Messiah promised to Israel (Jn 1:41,45); he is =93the Word=94 = (Logos)=20 come =93to his own=94 (Jn 1:11-14). The salvation he brings = through his=20 paschal mystery is offered first of all to the Israelites. = 345=20 As foreseen by the Old Testament, this salvation has universal=20 repercussions as well. 346 It is also offered to the = Gentiles.=20 Moreover, it is accepted by many of them, to the extent that they = have=20 become the great majority of Christ's disciples. But Christians = from the=20 nations profit from salvation only by being introduced, by their = faith in=20 Israel's Messiah, into the posterity of Abraham (Ga 3:7,29). Many=20 Christians from the =93nations=94 are not aware that they are by = nature =93wild=20 olives=94 and that their faith in Christ has grafted them onto the = olive=20 tree chosen by God (Rm 11:17-18).

Israel's election is made concrete and specific in = the Sinai=20 covenant and by the institutions based on it, especially the Law = and the=20 Temple. The New Testament is in continuity with this covenant and = its=20 institutions. The new covenant foretold by Jeremiah and = established in the=20 blood of Jesus has come through the covenant between God and = Israel,=20 surpassing the Sinai covenant by a new gift of the Lord that = completes and=20 carries forward the original gift. Likewise, =93the law of the = Spirit of=20 life in Christ Jesus=94 (Rm 8:2), which gives an interior = dynamism, remedies=20 the weakness (8:3) of the Sinai Law and renders believers capable = of=20 living a disinterested love that is the =93fulfilment of the = Law=94 (Rm=20 13:10). As regards the earthly Temple, the New Testament, = borrowing terms=20 prepared by the Old Testament, relativises the adequacy of a = material=20 edifice as a dwelling place of God (Ac 7:48), and points to a = relationship=20 with God where the emphasis is on interiority. In this point, as = in many=20 others, it is obvious that the continuity is based on the = prophetic=20 movement of the Old Testament.

In the past, the break between the Jewish people = and the=20 Church of Christ Jesus could sometimes, in certain times and = places, give=20 the impression of being complete. In the light of the Scriptures, = this=20 should never have occurred. For a complete break between Church = and=20 Synagogue contradicts Sacred Scripture.

 

B. = Pastoral=20 Orientations

86. The Second Vatican Council, in its = recommendation that=20 there be =93understanding and mutual esteem=94 between Christians = and Jews,=20 declared that these will be =93born especially from biblical and = theological=20 study, as well as from fraternal dialogue=94. 347 The = present=20 Document has been composed in this spirit; it hopes to make a = positive=20 contribution to it, and encourages in the Church of Christ the = love=20 towards Jews that Pope Paul VI emphasised on the day of the = promulgation=20 of the conciliar document Nostra=20 Aetate. 348

With this text, Vatican Two laid the foundations = for a new=20 understanding of our relations with Jews when it said that = =93according to=20 the apostle (Paul), the Jews, because of their ancestors, still = remain=20 very dear to God, whose gifts and calling are irrevocable (Rm=20 11:29)=94. 349

Through his teaching, John Paul II has, on many = occasions,=20 taken the initiative in developing this Declaration. During a = visit to the=20 synagogue of Mainz (1980) he said: =93The encounter between the = people of=20 God of the Old Covenant, which has never been abrogated by God = (cf. Rm=20 11:29), and that of the New Covenant is also an internal = dialogue=20 in our Church, similar to that between the first and second part = of its=20 Bible=94. 350 Later, addressing the Jewish communities = of Italy=20 during a visit to the synagogue of Rome (1986), he declared: = =93The Church=20 of Christ discovers its =91links' with Judaism =91by pondering its = own=20 mystery' (cf. Nostra=20 Aetate). The Jewish religion is not =91extrinsic' to us, = but in a=20 certain manner, it is =91intrinsic' to our religion. We have = therefore a=20 relationship with it which we do not have with any other religion. = You are=20 our favoured brothers and, in a certain sense, one can say our = elder=20 brothers=94. 351 Finally, in the course of a meeting on = the roots=20 of anti-Jewish feeling among Christians (1997) he said: =93This = people has=20 been called and led by God, Creator of heaven and earth. Their = existence=20 then is not a mere natural or cultural happening,... It is a = supernatural=20 one. This people continues in spite of everything to be the people = of the=20 covenant and, despite human infidelity, the Lord is faithful to = his=20 covenant=94. 352 This teaching was given the stamp of = approval by=20 John Paul II's visit to Israel, in the course of which he = addressed=20 Israel's Chief Rabbis in these terms: =93We (Jews and Christians) = must work=20 together to build a future in which there will be no more = anti-Jewish=20 feeling among Christians, or any anti-Christian feeling among = Jews. We=20 have many things in common. We can do much for the sake of peace, = for a=20 more human and more fraternal world=94. 353

On the part of Christians, the main condition for = progress=20 along these lines lies in avoiding a one-sided reading of biblical = texts,=20 both from the Old Testament and the New Testament, and making = instead a=20 better effort to appreciate the whole dynamism that animates them, = which=20 is precisely a dynamism of love. In the Old Testament, the plan of = God is=20 a union of love with his people, a paternal love, a spousal love = and,=20 notwithstanding Israel's infidelities, God will never renounce it, = but=20 affirms it in perpetuity (Is 54:8; Jr 31:3). In the New Testament, = God's=20 love overcomes the worst obstacles; even if they do not believe in = his Son=20 whom he sent as their Messiah Saviour, Israelites are still = =93loved=94 (Rm=20 11:29). Whoever wishes to be united to God, must also love = them.

87. The partial reading of texts frequently gives = rise to=20 difficulties affecting relations with the Jews. The Old Testament, = as we=20 have seen, is not sparing in its reproaches against Israelites, or = even in=20 its condemnations. It is very demanding towards them. Rather than = casting=20 stones at the Jews, it is better to see them as illustrating the = saying of=20 the Lord Jesus: =93To whom much is given, from him much is = expected=94 (Lk=20 12:48), and this saying applies to us Christians as well. Certain = biblical=20 narratives present aspects of disloyalty or cruelty which today = would be=20 morally inadmissable, but they must be understood in their = historical and=20 literary contexts. The slow historical progress of revelation must = be=20 recognised: the divine pedagogy has taken a group of people where = it found=20 them and led them patiently in the direction of an ideal union = with God=20 and towards a moral integrity which our modern society is still = far from=20 attaining. This education must avoid two opposite dangers, on the = one=20 hand, of attributing to ancient prescriptions an ongoing validity = for=20 Christians (for example, refusing blood transfusions on biblical = grounds)=20 and, on the other hand, of rejecting the whole Bible on the = pretext of its=20 cruelties. As regards ritual precepts, such as the rules for pure = and=20 impure, one has to be conscious of their symbolic and = anthropological=20 import, and be aware of their sociological and religious = functions.

In the New Testament, the reproaches addressed to = Jews are=20 not as frequent or as virulent as the accusations against Jews in = the Law=20 and the Prophets. Therefore, they no longer serve as a basis for=20 anti-Jewish sentiment. To use them for this purpose is contrary to = the=20 whole tenor of the New Testament. Real anti-Jewish feeling, that = is, an=20 attitude of contempt, hostility and persecution of the Jews as = Jews, is=20 not found in any New Testament text and is incompatible with its = teaching.=20 What is found are reproaches addressed to certain categories of = Jews for=20 religious reasons, as well as polemical texts to defend the = Christian=20 apostolate against Jews who oppose it.

But it must be admitted that many of these = passages are=20 capable of providing a pretext for anti-Jewish sentiment and have = in fact=20 been used in this way. To avoid mistakes of this kind, it must be = kept in=20 mind that the New Testament polemical texts, even those expressed = in=20 general terms, have to do with concrete historical contexts and = are never=20 meant to be applied to Jews of all times and places merely because = they=20 are Jews. The tendency to speak in general terms, to accentuate = the=20 adversaries' negative side, and to pass over the positive in = silence,=20 failure to consider their motivations and their ultimate good = faith, these=20 are characteristics of all polemical language throughout = antiquity, and=20 are no less evident in Judaism and primitive Christianity against = all=20 kinds of dissidents.

The fact that the New Testament is essentially a=20 proclamation of the fulfilment of God's plan in Jesus Christ, puts = it in=20 serious disagreement with the vast majority of the Jewish people = who do=20 not accept this fulfilment. The New Testament then expresses at = one and=20 the same time its attachment to Old Testament revelation and its=20 disagreement with the Synagogue. This discord is not to be taken = as=20 =93anti-Jewish sentiment=94, for it is disagreement at the level = of faith, the=20 source of religious controversy between two human groups that take = their=20 point of departure from the same Old Testament faith basis, but = are in=20 disagreement on how to conceive the final development of that = faith.=20 Although profound, such disagreement in no way implies reciprocal=20 hostility. The example of Paul in Rm 9-11 shows that, on the = contrary, an=20 attitude of respect, esteem and love for the Jewish people is the = only=20 truly Christian attitude in a situation which is mysteriously part = of the=20 beneficent and positive plan of God. Dialogue is possible, since = Jews and=20 Christians share a rich common patrimony that unites them. It is = greatly=20 to be desired that prejudice and misunderstanding be gradually = eliminated=20 on both sides, in favour of a better understanding of the = patrimony they=20 share and to strengthen the links that bind them.

NOTES

(1) See the presentation of this phase of = Augustine's=20 spiritual journey in the work of Peter Brown, Augustine of = Hippo, A=20 Biography, London, 1967, 40-45.

(2) A von Harnack, Marcion, 1920. Reissued = Darmstadt=20 1985, XII and 217.

(3) The decisive breakthrough for an appreciation = of=20 Origen's exegesis was made by H. de Lubacin his work Histoire = et=20 Esprit. L'intelligence de l'=C9criture d'apr=E8s Orig=E8ne, = Paris 1950.=20 Since then, the works of H. Crouzelespecially merit attention (for = example, Origene, 1985). A good overview of the state of = research=20 is given by H.-J. Siebenin his Einleitung zu Origenes. In = Lucam=20 homiliae, Fribourg, 1991, pp. 7-53. A synthesis of the various = works of H.=20 de Lubac on the question of the interpretation of Scripture is = given in=20 the work edited by J. Voderholzer, H. de Lubac, Typologie, = Allegorese,=20 Geistiger Sinn. Studien zur Geschichte der christlichen=20 Schriftauslegung, Johannes Verlag, Fribourg 1999.

(4) 5 Translated from the French by Maurice = Hogan.

(5) For example, angelos, =93messenger=94 = or =93angel=94,=20 gin(o-)skein, =93to know=94 or =93to have relations = with=94, diathk,=20 =93testament=94 or =93pact=94, =93covenant=94, nomos, = =93law=94 or=20 =93revelation=94, ethn, =93nations=94 or =93pagans=94.

(6) For example, in the Gospel of Matthew there = are 160=20 implicit quotations and allusions; 60 in the Gospel of Mark; 192 = in the=20 Gospel of Luke; 137 in the Gospel of John; 140 in Acts; 72 in the = Letter=20 to the Romans, etc.

(7) There are 38 quotations in Matthew; 15 in = Mark; 15 in=20 Luke; 14 in John; 22 in Acts; 47 in Romans and so on.

(8) Rm 10:8; Ga 3:16; Heb 8:8; 10:5.

(9) Subjects understood: Scripture (Rm 10:8; cf. = 10:11), the=20 Lord (Ga 3:16; cf. Gn 13:14-15; Heb 8:8; cf. 8:8,9), Christ (Heb=20 10:5).

(10) Subjects expressed: =93Scripture=94 (Rm 9:17; = Ga 4:30);=20 =93the Law=94 (Rm 3:19; 7:7); =93Moses=94 (Mk 7:10; Ac 3:22; Rm = 10:19), =93David=94=20 (Mt 22:43; Ac 2:25; 4:25; Rm 4:6), =93the prophet=94 (Mt 1:22; = 2:15), =93Isaiah=94=20 (Mt 3:3; 4:14, etc., Jn 1:23; 12:39,41; Rm 10:16,20), = =93Jeremiah=94 (Mt=20 2:17), =93the Holy Spirit=94 (Ac 1:16; Heb 3:7; 10:15), =93the = Lord=94 (Heb=20 8:8,9,10 =3D Jr 31:31,32, 33).

(11) Rm 9:15,17; 1 Tm 5:18.

(12) Mt 2:5; 4:10; 26:31, etc.

(13) 1 Co 9:8; Rm 6:19; Ga 3:15.

(14) Rm 15:4; cf. 1 Co 10:11.

(15) Mk 8:31; cf. Mt 16:21; Lk 9:22; 17:25.

(16) Mt 1:22; 2:15; 2:23; Mt 4:14; 8:17; 12:17; = 13:35;=20 21:4.

(17) Jn 12:38; 13:18; 15:25; 17:12; = 19:24,28,36.

(18) Mk 14:49; cf. Mt 26:56; Jn 19:28.

(19) Lk 24:27; cf. 24:25,32, 45-46.

(20) Passion: Ac 4:25-26; 8:32-35; 13:27-29; = Resurrection:=20 2:25-35; 4:11; 13:32-35; Pentecost: 2:16-21; missionary outreach: = 13:47;=20 15:18.

(21) Ga 3:6-14,24-25; 4:4-7; Rm 3:9-26; 6:14; = 7:5-6.

(22) According to rabbinic understanding, the = written Law=20 was duplicated by a complementary oral Law.

(23) The origin and extension of the canon of the = Jewish=20 Bible will be treated below in I.E., no. 16.

(24) Ezk 47:1-12 followed by Jl 2:18,27 and Za = 14:8-11.

(25) Heb 1:5-13; 2:6-9; 3:7-4:11; 7:1-28; 10:5-9; = 12:5-11,=20 26-29.

(26) Qal wa-homer is found in Mt 6:30; = 7:11; Jn 7:23;=20 10:34-36; Rm 5:15,17; 2 Co 3:7-11; gezerah shawah in Mt = 12:1-4; Ac=20 2:25-28; Rm 4:1-12; Ga 3:10-14.

(27) Cf. Ga 3:19 (Paul derives from the mediation = of angels=20 in the promulgation of the Law an argument to demonstrate the = inferiority=20 of the Law); 4:21-31 (the mention of Sarah and Hagar serves to = demonstrate=20 that Gentiles who believe in Christ are =93children of the = promise=94); Rm=20 4:1-10 (it is the faith of Abraham, not circumcision, that = justifies him);=20 10:6-8 (the verse that speaks of ascending the heavens is applied = to=20 Christ); 1 Co 10:4 (Christ is identified with the rock that = accompanied=20 the people in the desert); 15:45-47 (the two Adams, of whom Christ = is the=20 second and more perfect); 2 Co 3:13-16 (a symbolic meaning is = attributed=20 to the veil that covered Moses' face).

(28) Cf. Ep 4:8-9 (where a text on ascending the = heavens,=20 traditionally applied to Moses, is applied to Christ); Heb 7:1-28 = (on the=20 superiority of the priesthood according to Melchizedek over that = of the=20 levitical priests).

(29) 1 QH 2:31-36; 5:12-16; 18:14-16.

(30) Jews count 24 books in their Bible, called = TaNaK, a=20 word formed from the initials of T=F4r 1) The Catholic Church = accepts 46=20 books in its Old Testament canon, 39 protocanonical books and 7=20 deuterocanonical, so called because the former were accepted with = little=20 or no debate, while the latter (Sirach, Baruch, Tobit, Judith, = Wisdom 1,2=20 Maccabees and parts of Esther and Daniel) were accepted only after = centuries of hesitation (on the part of certain Eastern Church = Fathers as=20 well as Jerome); the Churches of the Reformation call these=20 =93Apocrypha=94.

(32) In Contra Apion(1:8), written between = 93 and 95,=20 Josephus comes very close to the idea of a canon of Scripture, but = his=20 vague reference to books to which titles had not yet been attached = (later=20 called the =93Writings=94), shows that Judaism had not yet = accepted a=20 definitive collection of books.

(33) The so-called Council of Jamnia was more in = the nature=20 of a school or an academy that sat in Jamnia between the years 75 = and 117.=20 There is no evidence of a decision drawing up a list of books. It = seems=20 that the canon of the Jewish Scriptures was not definitively fixed = before=20 the end of the second century. Scholarly discussion on the status = of=20 certain books continued into the third century.

(34) If the early Church had received from = Alexandria a=20 closed canon or a closed list of books, one would expect that the = existing=20 manuscripts of the Septuagint and the Christian lists of Old = Testament=20 books would be virtually the same. But this is not the case. The = Old=20 Testament lists of books of the Church Fathers and early councils = do not=20 have such unanimity. It was not the Alexandrian Jews who fixed the = exclusive canon of Scripture, but the Church, beginning from the=20 Septuagint.

(35) These books comprised not only writings = originally=20 composed in Hebrew and translated into Greek, but also writings = composed=20 in Greek.

(36) Cf. Denziger-Huenermann, Enchiridion = Symbolorum,=20 36th edition, Fribourg-im-Breisgau, Basil, Rome, Vienna 1991, nos=20 1334-1336, 1501-1504.

(37) For the origin of this title, see above no. = 2. Today in=20 certain circles there is a tendency to use =93First Testament=94 = to avoid any=20 negative connotation attached to =93Old Testament=94. But = =93Old=20 Testament=94 is a biblical and traditional expression which of = itself does=20 not have a negative connotation: the Church fully recognises the=20 importance of the Old Testament.

(38) Cf. I. D.: =93Jewish Exegetical Methods = employed in the=20 New Testament=94, nos 12-15.

(39) Cf. Rm 5:14; 1 Co 10:6; Heb 9:24; 1 P = 3:21.

(40) Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a, = q. 1, a.=20 10ad 1um; cf. also Quodl. VII, 616m.

(41) Is 35:1-10; 40:1-5; 43:1-22; 48:12-21; = 62.

(42) Cf. below II B.9 and C, nos 54-65.

(43) =93Non solum impletur, verum etiam = transcenditur=94,=20 Ambroise Autpert, quoted by H. de Lubac, Ex=E9g=E8se = m=E9di=E9vale,=20 II.246.

(44) 2 Co 5:17; Ga 6:15.

(45) Cf. the document of the Pontifical Biblical = Commission,=20 The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church, I.C.2.: = =93Approach=20 through Recourse to Jewish Traditions of Interpretation=94.

(46) Gn 12:1-3; 26:23-24; 46:2-4.

(47) Ex 20:1; 24:3-8; 34:27-28; cf. Nb 15:31.

(48) Ho 12:14; Dt 18:15,18.

(49) Is 6:5-8; Jr 1:4-10; Ez 2:1-3:3.

(50) Is 55:11; Jr 20:9.

(51) Mt 21:11, 46; Lk 7:16; 24:19; Jn 4:19; 6:14; = 7:40;=20 9:17.

(52) The word lordis usually put in capitals here = since the=20 Hebrew text has the unpronounced tetragrammaton YHWH, the proper = name of=20 the God of Israel. In reading, the Jews substituted other words,=20 especially 'adona=EF, =94Lord=94.

(53) Dt 4:35,39; Is 45:6,14.

(54) 1 Co 8:4; cf. Ga 3:20; Jm 2:19.

(55) Ps 115:15; 121:2; 124:8; 134:3; 146:6.

(56) Is 42:5; 44:24; 45:11; 48:13.

(57) Pr 8:22-31; 14:31; 17:5; Jb 38; Ws 9:1-2.

(58) Ps 139:13-15; Jb 10:9-12.

(59) Jb 26:12-13; Ps 74:12-23; 89:10-15; Is = 45:7-8;=20 51:9-11.

(60) Mt 6:25-26; cf. Lk 12:22-32.

(61) Ws 9:1; cf. Ps 33:6-9; Si 42:15.

(62) Rv 22:5; cf. Is 60:9.

(63) 2 Co 5:17; cf. Ga 6:15.

(64) Gn 5:1; Ws 2:23; Si 17:3. The same idea is = found in Ps=20 8:5-7, although expressed differently.

(65) This ordinance is completed after the deluge, = cf. Gn=20 9:3-4.

(66) Gn 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21, 25.

(67) Gn 5:29; Is 14:3; Ps 127;2; Pr 5:10; 10:22; = 14:23.

(68) Gn 3:19; cf. 2:7; 3:23.

(69) Mt 4:25 and par.; 15:31-32.

(70) Mt 8:10; 15:28.

(71) Ga 3;26; 4:6; Rm 9:26.

(72) 2 Co 4:4; cf. Col 1:15.

(73) Mt 4:24 and par.; 8:16 and par.; 14:35 and = par.; Jn=20 5:3.

(74) Mk 5:38; Lk 7:12-13; Jn 11:33-35.

(75) Mt 3:10 and par.; Lk 13:1-5; 17:26-30; = 19:41-44;=20 23:29-31.

(76) Mt 3:2-12; Mk1:2-6; Lk 3:2-9.

(77) Mk 7:21-23; cf. Mt 15:19-20.

(78) Mt 10:17-23; Lk 21:12-17.

(79) Mt 12:14 and par.; Jn 5:18; Mk 11:18; Lk = 19:47.

(80) Rm 3:10; cf. Ps 14:3; Qo 7:20.

(81) 2 Co 5:14; cf. Rm 5:18.

(82) Rm 5:12; 1 Co 15:56.

(83) Ex 15:1-10, 20-21; Ps 106:9-11; 114:1-5; = 136:13-15.

(84) Dt 26:6-9; cf. 6:21-23.

(85) Jg 2:11-22; 3:9,15; 2 K 13:5; Ne 9:27. The = title=20 Saviour is given to God in 2 S 22:3; Is 43:3; 45:15; 60:16, as = well as in=20 other texts.

(86) Is 41:14; 43:14; 44:6,24; 47:4; 48:17; = 49:7,26;=20 54:5,8.

(87) Is 60:10-12; 35:9-10.

(88) Ps 7:2; 22:21-22; 26:11; 31:16; 44:27; = 118:25;=20 119:134.

(89) Ps 34:5; 66:19; 56:14; 71:23.

(90) 2 M 7:9,11,14,23,29.

(91) Lk 1:69,71,74,77.

(92) In the Septuagint, lytr(o-)ts is found = only=20 twice, a title conferred on God: Ps 18(19):14; 77(78):35.

(93) Applied to God, this title is found only once = in the=20 Gospels (Lk 1:47), never in Acts or in the uncontested Pauline = Epistles;=20 it is applied to Jesus, twice in the Gospels (Lk 2:11; Jn 4:42), = twice in=20 Acts (Ac 5:31; 13:23), once in the uncontested Pauline Letters (Ph = 3:20).

(94) The First Letter to Timothy applies the title = only to=20 God, three times (1 T 1:1; 2:3; 4:10); the Second applies it only = once to=20 Christ (2 T 1:10); the Letter to Titus applies it three times to = God (Ti=20 1:3; 2:10; 3:4) and three times to Christ (Ti 1:4; 2:13; 3:6). The = Second=20 Letter of Peter applies it only to Christ, together with the title = Lord (2=20 P 1:1,11; 2:20; 3:2,18).

(95) Mk 5:23,28,34; 6:56.

(96) Mt 9:22 and par.; Mk 10:52; Lk 17:19; = 18:42.

(97) Mt 8:25-26 and par.; 14:30-31.

(98) Mt 9:18-26 and par.; Lk 7:11-17; Jn = 11:38-44.

(99) Mt 27:39-44 and par.; Lk 23:39.

(100) Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45.

(101) Jn 6:15; Lk 24:21; Ac 1:6.

(102) Rm 1:16; cf. 10:9-13; 15:8-12.

(103) 2 In Hebrew segullah: Ex 19:5; Dt = 7:6; 14:2;=20 26:18; Ps 135:4; Ml 3:17.

(104) Lv 11:44-45; 19:2.

(105) Dt 12:5,11,14,18, 21, 26; 14:23-25, etc.

(106) Ps 78:67-68; 1 Ch 28:4.

(107) 2 S 6:21; 1 K 8:16; 1 Ch 28:4; 2 Ch 6:6; Ps = 78:70.

(108) Is 41: 8-9; 44:1-2.

(109) Is 41:8-9; 44:1-2.

(110) Is 41:8-9; 43:10; 44:1-2; 45:4; 49:3.

(111) Is 43:10,12; 44:8; 55:5.

(112) Mt 28:20; cf. 1:23.

(113) Lk 19:48; 21:38.

(114) Ac 2:41,47; 4:4; 5:14.

(115) Ac 13:46; 18:6; 28:28. In the Gospel of = Luke, the=20 episode of Jesus' preaching at Nazareth already presents the same = type of=20 structure as Acts 13:42-45 and 22:21-22: Jesus' universal outlook = provokes=20 hostility on the part of his townspeople (Lk 4:23-30).

(116) Ac 28:26-27; Is 6:9-10.

(117) Ps 47:10; 86:9; Zc 14:16.

(118) Mt 8:11; Lk 13:29.

(119) Mk 16:15-16; cf. Mt 28:18-20; Lk 24:47.

(120) 1 P 2:9; Is 43:21.

(121) 1 P 2:9; Ex 19:6.

(122) 1 P 2:10; Ho 2:25.

(123) Rm 11:1; 2 Co 11:22; Ga 1:14; Ph 3:5.

(124) Discourse of John Paul II in the synagogue = of Rome,=20 13-4-1986: AAS 78 (1986) 1120.

(125) Dt 30:15-16,19; Jos 24: 21-25.

(126) Ex 19-24; 32-34; especially 19:5; 24:7-8;=20 34:10,27-28.

(127) Ex 32: 11-13,31-32; 33:12-16; 34:9.

(128) Dt 4:13; cf. 4:23; 9:9,11,15.

(129) Ps 89:4; 132:11; 2 S 23:5; Ps = 89:29-30,35.

(130) 2 S 7:14 and par.; Ps 2:7; 89:28.

(131) Ex 24:12; 31:18, etc.

(132) Is 1:1-31; Jr 7:25-26; 11:7-8.

(133) Ezk 36:26-27; cf. 11:19-20; 16:60; = 37:26.

(134) Damascus Document 6:19; 19:33-34.

(135) Ezk 36:26-28; Jl 3:1-2.

(136) Ga 3:15-4:7; 4:21-28; Rm 6:14; 7:4-6.

(137) Gn 12:3; Ga 3:8.

(138) Ga 3:29; 2 Co 1:20.

(139) Heb 8:7-13; Jr 31:31-34 LXX.

(140) Heb 9:15; cf. 7:22; 12:24.

(141) Heb 7:18; 9:9; 10:1,4,11.

(142) Mt 1:1; 9:27; etc., cf. Lk 1:32; Rm 1:3.

(143) Dt 4:6-8; Si 24:22-27; Ba 3:38-4:4.

(144) Mt 5:21-48; Mk 2:23-27.

(145) Decalogue Ex 20:1-17; Dt 5:6-21; Covenant = Code Ex 20:=20 22-23:19; the collection of Ex 34; Deuteronomic Law Dt 12-28; = Holiness=20 Code Lv 17-26; Priestly Laws Ex 25-31; 35-40; Lv 1-7; 8-10, 11-16, = etc.

(146) Ex 19-24; 32-34; cf. Dt 5:9-10.

(147) Gn 17; Ex 12-13; 15:23-26, etc.

(148) Ex 20:19-21; Dt 5:23-31.

(149) Ex 19:5-6; 24:10-11.

(150) Ex 32-34; Ex 20:2-6 and par.

(151) For example, the legislation concerning the = freeing of=20 slaves: Ex 21:2; Lv 25:10; Dt 15:12; cf. Is 58:6; 61:1; Jr = 34:8-17.

(152) Ex 20:2; Dt 5:6.

(153) Rm 7:10; Ga 3:21-22.

(154) Rm 1:17; Ga 2:19-20.

(155) Lv 19:18; Ga 5:14; Rm 13:8-10.

(156) Rm 10:3; Ph 3:9.

(157) Ga 3:10, quoting Dt 27:26.

(158) Ga 3:11; Hab 2:4.

(159) Ga 5:6; cf. 5:13; 6:9-10.

(160) Heb 2:2; 7:5,28; 8:4; 9:19,22; 10:8,28.

(161) Lv 19:18; Jm 2:8; 4:11.

(162) Ex 32:11-13, 30-32, etc.

(163) Shechem: Gn 12:6-7; Bethel: 12:8; Mamre: = 18:1-15;=20 Beersheeba: 26:23-25.

(164) Sabbath: Gn 2:1-3; Ex 20:8-11; sabbatical = year: Lv=20 25:2-7, 20-22; jubilee year: 25:8-19; feasts: Ex 23:14-17; Lv 23; = Dt=20 16:1-17; Day of Atonement: Lv 16:23, 27-32.

(165) Note that the Old Testament knows nothing of = impure=20 times.

(166) Gn 28:16-18; Ex 3:5; Jos 5:15.

(167) Ex 23:11-12; Lv 25:6-7.

(168) Lv 4-5; 16; 17:10-12; Is 6:5-7, etc.

(169) Ex 25:8-9; Dt 4:7,32-34.

(170) Jr 11:19-20; 12:1-4; 15:15-18; etc. Later 2 = M 15:14=20 presents Jeremiah in the nether world as =93the friend of his = brothers, who=20 prays much for the people=94.

(171) Is 12:1-6; 25:1-5; 26:7-19; 37:16-20; = 38:9-20;=20 42:10-12; 63:7-64:11; Jon 2:3-10; Na 1:2-8; Hab 3:1-19.

(172) Am 4:13; 5:8-9; 9:5-6.

(173) Is 1:10-17; Ho 6:6; Am 5:21-25; Jr = 7:21-22.

(174) Is 1:15; 59:3.

(175) Jb 7:1-21; 9:25-31; 10:1-22; 13:20-14:22; = etc.

(176) Lm 1:9-11,20-22; 2:20; 3:41-45,55-66; = 5:19-22.

(177) Pr 15:8,29; 28:9.

(178) Pr 30:7-9; Dn 2:20-23; 4:31-32,34; 9:4-19 = (cf.=20 vv.20,23). And more frequently in the deuterocanonical = writings.

(179) 2 K 22-23.

(180) Gn 14:18-20; 2 S 7; 24; Ps 132.

(181) Ex 25:10-22; Lv 16:12-15. (And Rm 3:25; Heb = 9:5).

(182) Mi 3:12; Jr 26:18; etc.

(183) 1 K 8:27; cf. Is 66:1.

(184) Ezk 10:3-22; 11:22-24.

(185) 1 K 8:44,48; Ze 1:17.

(186) Ps 48; 87; 122.

(187) Is 60: 19-20.

(188) Is 54:1-8; 62:2-5.

(189) Is 65:17-25; 66:20-23.

(190) Is 2:2-4; Mi 4:1-4.

(191) Mt 28:19; Mk 16:16; Lk 22:19; Jn 6:53-56; 1 = Co=20 11:24-25.

(192) Mt 11:25; Lk 10:21; Mt 14:19 and par.; 15:36 = and par.;=20 Jn 11:41; Mt 26:26-27 and par.

(193) Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26.

(194) Mt 27:46; Mk 15:34.

(195) Cf. Mt 9:22 and par; 9:29; 15:28; Mk 10:52; = Lk=20 18:42.

(196) Mt 6:5-15; Lk 18:9-14.

(197) Lk 11:5-8; 18:1-8.

(198) Mt 6:9-13; Lk 11:2-4.

(199) Ph 2:6-11; Col 1:15-20; 1 T 3:16. The hymn = in Ep=20 1:3-14 glorifies the Father for the work accomplished =93in = Christ=94.

(200) 2 Co 1:3-4; Ep 1:3.

(201) Jn 4:23; Rm 8:15,26.

(202) Mt 26:26-28 and par.; Jn 6:51-58; 1 Co = 10:16-17;=20 11:17-34.

(203) Mk 16:16; Mt 28:19-20.

(204) Cf. above note 169 and Ps 40:7-9 quoted and = commented=20 on in Heb 10:5-10; Ps 50: 13-14; 51: 18-19.

(205) Heb 9:8-10; 10:1,11.

(206) Heb 5:7-10; 9:11-15; 10:10,14.

(207) Jn 7:14,28; Mk 12:35; Lk 19:47; 20:1; 21:37; = Mt 26:55=20 and par.

(208) Jn 4:20-24; Ac 7:48-49 (in reference to = Solomon's=20 Temple, quoting Is 66:1-2), Ac 17:24 (in reference to pagan = temples).

(209) Jn 2:19; cf. Mt 26:61 and par.

(210) Rv 3:12; 7:15; 11:1-2, 19; 14:15,17; 15:5,8; = 16:1,17;=20 21:22.

(211) Mt 20:17-19 and par.; 21:1-10 and par.; Lk = 9:31,51;=20 13:33.

(212) Lk 19:41-44. Cf. Mt 23:37-39; Lk 13:34-35;=20 21:20-24.

(213) Ex 15:24; 16:2; 17:3; etc.

(214) The golden calf episode is the first = narrative episode=20 after the conclusion of the covenant. The intermediate chapters = (Ex 25-31)=20 are legislative texts.

(215) Ex 33:3,5; 34:9; Dt 9:6,13; 31:27; Ba = 2:30.

(216) Nu 13:31-14:4; Dt 1:20-21, 26-28.

(217) 2 K 21:15; Jr 7:25-26.

(218) Is 58:1; cf. Ho 8:1; Mi 3:8.

(219) Am 2:6-7; 4:1; 8:4-6.

(220) Rejection of Israel in Ho 1:4-6,8-9; Am = 8:1-2; of=20 Judah in Is 6:10-13; Jr 6:30; 7:29.

(221) Mi 3:11-12; Jr 7:14-15.

(222) Jr 7:9; 9:1-8.

(223) Jr 3:1-13; 5:7-9.

(224) Ezr 9:6-7,10,13,15: Ne 1:6-7; 9:16-27; Ba = 1:15-22; Dn=20 3:26-45 LXX; 9:5-11.

(225) Ho 11:8-9; Jr 31:20.

(226) Ho 2:21-22; Jr 31:31-34; Ezk 36:24-28.

(227) Lk 19:43-44; Mt 24:2,15-18 and par.

(228) Ac 3:17; cf. Lk 23:34.

(229) Ac 2:41; 4:4.

(230) Ga 5:21; Ep 5:5; Heb 10:26-31.

(231) 1 Co 4:8; 5:1-5; 6:1-8; 11:17-22; 2 Co = 12:20-21; Ga=20 1:6; 4:9; 5:4,7.

(232) 1:24,26,28; cf. Ps 81:13.

(233) 1 Co 1:10-13; 3:1-4.

(234) 1 Co 5:1-5; cf also 1 Tm 1:19-20.

(235) 1 Tm 1:19-20; 2 Tm 2:17-18.

(236) Rv 2:7,11,17,29, etc.

(237) Rv 2:5,16,22; 3:3,19.

(238) Gn 13:16; 15:5; 17:5-6.

(239) Gn 15:4; 17:19; 21:12.

(240) Is 61:9; 65:23; 66:22.

(241) Ne 9:2; cf. 10:31; 13:3; Ezr 9-10.

(242) Lk 1:55,73; cf. also Heb 11:11-12.

(243) Gn 12:7; 13:15; 15:4-7,18-21; 17:6-8; = 28:13-14;=20 35:11-12.

(244) Ex 3:7-8; 6:2-8; Dt 12:9-10.

(245) Lv 18:24-28; Dt 28:15-68.

(246) Lv 25:53; Ps 39:13; 1 Ch 29:15.

(247) Am 9:11-15; Mi 5:6-7; Jr 12:15; Ezk = 36:24-28.

(248) See above II. B. 7 nos 48 and 51.

(249) Is 2:1-4; Mi 4:1-4; Zc 14; Tb 13.

(250) Jos 6:21; 7:1,11; 8:26; 11:11-12.

(251) Dt 7:3-6; 20:18; cf. Ezr 9:1-4; Ne = 13:23-29.

(252) Heb 11:9-16; see also 3:1,11-4:11.

(253) Ex 23:30; Ps 37:11.

(254) Am 5:18-20; 8:9; Zp 1:15.

(255) Ho 11:8-11; Am 5:15; Zp 2:3.

(256) Ezk 20:33-38; Is 43:1-21; 51:9-11; = 52:4-12.

(257) Ezk 34:1-31; Is 40:11; 59:20.

(258) Is 44:3; Ezk 36:24-28.

(259) Ezk 37:1-14.

(260) Ezk 43:1-12; 47:1-12.

(261) Is 41:8-10; 44:1-2.

(262) Is 66:22; Jr 33:25-26.

(263) Is 27:12-13; Jr 30:18-22, etc.

(264) Is 66:18-21; Zc 14:16.

(265) Is 11:11-16; Jr 31:7; Mi 2:12-13; 4:6-7; = 5:6-7; Zp=20 3:12-13; Zc 8:6-8, etc.

(266) Ezr 9:13-15; Ne 1:2-3.

(267) Ac 2:41; 4:4; 5:14.

(268) Mt 13:14-15 and par.; Jn 12:40; Ac 28:26-27; = Rm=20 11:8.

(269) Ex 15:18; Nu 23:21; Dt 33:5.

(270) Is 41:21; 43:15; 52:7; Ezk 20:33.

(271) Is 33:22; Mi 2:13; Zp 3:15; Ml 1:14.

(272) Is 24:23; Mi 4:7-8; Zc 14:6-9,16-17.

(273) Ps 47; 93; 96-99.

(274) At the beginning in Ps 93; 97; 99; in the = middle in Ps=20 47 and 96.

(275) Ps 47:9; cf. 96:10.

(276) Mt 4;17,23; 9:35.

(277) 13:47-50; 22:1-13; cf. 24:1-13.

(278) Mt 16:28; 25:31,34.

(279) Jn 3:3,5; Ac 1:3; 8:12, etc; Rm 14:17; 1 Co = 4:20,=20 etc.

(280) Rv 12:10 =93the kingdom of our God=94.

(281) Is 9:1-6; 11:1-9; Jr 23:5-6; Ezk 34:23-24; = Mi 5:1-5;=20 Zc 3:8; 9:9-10.

(282) 1 QS 9:9-11; 1 QSa 2:11-12; CD 12:23; 19:10; = 20:1.

(283) 1 Hen 93:3-10; 2 Ba 29-30; 39-40; 72-74; 4 = Esd=20 7:26-36; 12:31-34; Apoc Abr 31:1-2.

(284) Mt 1:1-17; 2:1-6; Lk 1:32-33: 2:11.

(285) Jn 1:41; 4:25.

(286) Mt 11:3; Lk 7:19; Jn 11:27.

(287) Mt 24:5,23-24; Mk 13:21-22.

(288) Mt 16:16 and par.; Jn 11:27; 20:31; Ac 2:36; = 9:22;=20 17:3; 18:5,28; 1 Jn 5:1.

(289) Mk 8:31-37; Lk 24:26.

(290) Jn 3:28; 11:27; 20:31.

(291) Jn 7:25-31, 40-44; 9:22; 10:24; = 12:34-35.

(292) 2 S 7:14; cf. Ps 2:7.

(293) Mt 16:16; Mk 14:61-62 and par.; Jn 10:36; = 11:27;=20 20:31; Rm 1:3-4.

(294) Jn 10:30 (cf. 10:24); cf. 1:18.

(295) Ac 9:22; 18:5,28.

(296) Ap 2:26-27; 11:18; 12:5; 19:15,19.

(297) Mk 16:15-16; Jn 4:42.

(298) Mk 12:29; 1 Co 8:4; Ep 4:6; 1 Tm 2:5.

(299) Ps 33:6; Pr 8:22-31; Si 24:1-23, etc.

(300) Jn 1:14-18; Heb 1:1-4.

(301) Rm 8:29; 2 Co 3:18.

(302) 2 Co 5:17; Ga 6:15.

(303) Rm 4:25; Ph 3:20-21; 1 Tm 2:5-6; Heb = 9:15.

(304) Lk 22:20; 1 Co 11:25.

(305) The New Testament never calls the Church = =93the new=20 Israel=94. In Ga 6:14 =93the Israel of God=94 very likely = designates Jews who=20 believe in Christ Jesus.

(306) Lk 14:12-24; 1 Co 1:26-29; Jm 2:5.

(307) War 2.8.2-13; =A7 119-161.

(308) War 2:8.14; =A7 162; Antiquities = 18:13; =A7=20 14.

(309) Ga 1:13-14; Ph 3:5-6; cf. Ac 8:3; 9:1-2; = 22:3-5;=20 26:10-11.

(310) Mt 9:11,14 and par.; 12:2,14 and par.; = 12:24; 15:1-2=20 and par.; 15:12; 16:6 and par.; 22:15 and par.

(311) Mt 5:47; 15:26 and par.

(312) In the second century, the story of the = martyrdom of=20 Polycarp witnesses to the =93habitual=94 willingness on the part = of Jews in=20 Smyrna to cooperate in putting Christians to death, =93Martyrdom = of St=20 Polycarp=94 XIII,1.

(313) This observation is valid for the plural, = not for the=20 singular in 8:19 and 13:52.

(314) Is 8:23-9:6; Jr 31-32; Ezk 36:16-38.

(315) Mt 28:18; cf. Dn 7:14,18,27.

(316) Mk 15:2,9,12,18,26.

(317) Mk 12:29; 15:32.

(318) Mk 7:6: 14:2.

(319) Mk 11:18; 12:12; 14:2.

(320) See also Mk 8:11-12,15; 10:2-12; = 11:27-33.

(321) Mk 11:18; 12:12; 14:2.

(322) This tendency continues to manifest itself: = the=20 responsibility of the Nazis has been extended to include all = Germans, that=20 of certain western lobbies to include all Europeans, that of = certain=20 illegal immigrants to include all Africans.

(323) Luke notes that =93a great multitude of = people=94 followed=20 Jesus (23:27), of whom the greater part were women =93who beat = their breasts=20 and wailed for him=94 (ibid.). After the crucifixion, = =93the people=20 stood watching=94 (23:35); this watching prepares them for = conversion:=20 at the end when =93all the people who had gathered to witness this = sight and=20 saw what took place, they beat their breasts and went away=94 = (23:48).

(324) Ac 13:44-45,50; 14:2-6; 17:4-7,13; = 18:5-6.

(325) See above II. B. 3(b), n. 32.

(326) Jn 2:23; 4:39,41; 7:31; 8:30-31; 10:42; = 11:45;=20 12:11,42.

(327) Jn 1:10,11; 15:18,25.

(328) Jn 5:18; 10:33; 19:7.

(329) Jn 18:38-40; 19:14-15.

(330) Jn 9:22; 12:42; 16:2.

(331) Jn 7:20: 8:48,51; 10:20.

(332) Ga 5:14; Rm 13:9.

(333) Cf. Babylonian Talmud, Tract Shabbat = 31a.

(334) Rm 9:27-29, quoting Is 10:22-23; Ho 2:1 LXX; = =96 Rm 11:=20 4-5 quoting 1 K 19:18.

(335) Jr 7:16,20; 11:11,14; 15:1.

(336) Their rejection of idolatry and their = contempt for=20 paganism gave rise to strong animosity towards the Jews, accused = of being=20 a people apart (Est 3:8), =93in conflict in everything with all = people=94 (Est=20 3:13e LXX) and of nourishing a =93hatred of enemies towards all = other=20 (people)=94 (Tacitus, History, 5:5). Paul's viewpoint is = quite=20 different.

(337) Dt 10:16; cf. Jr 4:4; Rm 2:29.

(338) Cf 1 Co 6:9-11; Ep 4:17-19. In Dt 23:19 = =93dog=94=20 designates a prostitute; in Greece, the dog was a symbol of = lewdness. For=20 ritual mutilations, cf. Lv 21:5; 1 K 18:28; Is 15:2; Ho 7:14.

(339) Ga 4:28-29; Rm 9:8.

(340) In Greek, for =93to them belong=94 there is = a simple=20 genitive twice, which expresses possession (literally: =93of whom = [are]=94);=20 for =93from them comes=94 there is a genitive introduced by the = preposition=20 ex which expresses origin.

(341) Heb 4:9; 11:25; cf. 10:30 =93his = people=94.

(342) Nu 14:1-35; Heb 3:7-4:11.

(343) Heb 12:3; cf. Lk 24:7.

(344) 1 Pt 2:9; Ex 19:6; Is 43:21.

(345) Ac 3:26; Rm 1;16.

(346) Ps 98:2-4; Is 49:6.

(347) Declaration =93Nostra Aetate=94 on relations = of the Church=20 with non-Christian religions, no 4.

(348) Paul VI, homily of October 28th, 1965: =93ut = erga eos=20 reverentia et amor adhibeatur spesque in iis collocetur=94: = (=93that there be=20 respect and love towards them and that hope is placed in = them=94).

(349) ASS 58 (1966) 740.

(350) Documentation Catholique 77 (1980) = 1148.

(351) Documentation Catholique 83 (1986) = 437.

(352) Documentation Catholique 94 (1997) = 1003.

(353) Documentation Catholique 97 (2000) = 372.

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